Skip to main content
Springer is moving to Springer Nature Link. Visit this journal in its new home.

Official Journal of the Japan Wood Research Society

  • Original article
  • Open access
  • Published:

Enzymatic activities and degradation properties of fungi isolated from decayed Quercus variabilis

Journal of Wood Science volume 71, Article number: 55 (2025) Cite this article

Abstract

The objective of this study is to investigate the microorganisms responsible for the decay of Quercus variabilis. Fungi were isolated and identified from collected Q. variabilis samples, and their lignocellulose-degrading enzyme activities were assessed using carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) sodium salt and 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) diammonium salt as substrates. The fungal isolates consisted of 48 species of Ascomycota, 11 species of Basidiomycota, and 4 species of Mucoromycota, totaling 63 species. Among these, 31 species exhibited both cellulase and laccase activities. The lignocellulose-degrading enzyme activities of eight Basidiomycota species, where both cellulase and laccase activities were detected, were monitored over time. Phlebia acerina demonstrated the highest cellulase and laccase activities, with 5.1 IU/mL and 19.8 U/L, respectively. The wood-decomposing ability of eight Basidiomycota was evaluated according to KS F 2213:2004. P. acerina and Emmia lacerata exhibited the highest Weight loss percentages for 60 days, at 8.8% and 8.4%, respectively, suggesting their involvement in the decay of Q. variabilis. These findings would be conducive to offering information on wood-decaying fungi that may help to reduce the economic loss resulting from the inability of Q. variabilis to be used in various ways due to fungal decay.

Introduction

Quercus variabilis is a dominant species in warm-temperate deciduous and subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests, widely distributed across Asian countries such as Japan, Korea, and China [1]. It is commonly used for afforestation in challenging field conditions and is valued for its strong, durable wood, which is utilized in furniture, flooring, and timber-framed buildings [2, 3]. Additionally, Q. variabilis holds significant economic value due to its use in charcoal production, cork harvesting alongside Quercus suber, and the utilization of its acorns as raw materials for products like flour, coffee, and acorn jelly [3,4,5]. While the cork layer on its surface is highly resistant to decay, other tissues are prone to mold and decay when exposed to high humidity and temperatures [6].

Notably, Quercus species with high sprouting rates, such as Q. variabilis, are susceptible to root and stem decay, which can lead to considerable wood loss [7,8,9]. A study by Edberg and Berry [10] on defects in Quercus agrifolia, hardwoods, eucalyptus, conifers, Quercus lobata, and other oak species along the California coast found that over 70% of defects in oak trees were attributed to decay.

Wood decay is a result of complex and continuous interactions between wood and various microorganisms, typically initiated by microbial entry through wounds [11]. Certain decaying fungi species may colonize the heartwood during the early stages of tree development, leading to significant decay when internal tree conditions change, resulting in chemical and structural alterations [11, 12]. Fungal wood decay is classified into three types: brown rot, white rot, and soft rot, with fungi metabolizing cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin—the primary components of wood—through both enzymatic and non-enzymatic processes [13]. The structural difference in the individual cell wall layers as well as the anatomical structure of the wood can create various patterns of decay [12]. For example, the vessels and the middle layer in the cell walls, which have high concentrations of guaiacyl monomers, are particularly resistant to some soft-rot fungi, including Ustulina deusta [14, 15]. Furthermore, a strongly lignified cell wall becomes denser and more rigid due to lignin incrustation, making it more difficult for enzymes with relatively large molecular sizes to penetrate [12]. The degree of fungal invasion and the method by which it invades substrates depend on the cell types involved, their ability to break down cell wall components, and the fungus’s adaptability to various hosts and different environmental conditions [12]. In fact, in the study by Schwarze et al. [16], inoculation of Inonotus hispidus into Fraxinus excelsior and Platanus X hispanica resulted in markedly different patterns of decay, despite using the same fungal strain. Therefore, species-specific forest management strategies are essential. Timber affected by fungal decay loses economic value because it can be used only as pulp or fuel due to discoloration and diminished structural integrity [17,18,19]. Moreover, fungal infections can slow tree growth, reducing carbon sequestration and wood production. This underscores the need to study wood decay to support effective forest management and reduce economic losses [17].

Compared to conifers, broad-leaved trees like Q. variabilis contribute to greater species diversity in forests and help mitigate climate change [20, 21]. Q. variabilis is essential in forest ecosystems, contributing to the preservation and enhancement of soil and water quality [22]. In Korea, Quercus species account for 24.2% of forest cover, surpassing Pinus densiflora (21.9%), with Q. variabilis colony forests covering the largest area (5.7%) after P. densiflora colony (26.6%), Quercus mongolica colony (18.9%), and P. densiflora–Q. variabilis mixed colony (6.3%) according to Korea's 2012 National Natural Environmental Survey [23]. However, early detection of wood decay is challenging due to the lack of external visual indicators [17], making the development of strategic management measures for Q. variabilis crucial.

Despite the importance of Q. variabilis, research on its decay mechanisms is limited. Lee et al. [3] studied 104 species of decay fungi associated with Quercus species, including Trametes versicolor, Stereum peculiar, Lenzites betulina, Schizopora paradoxa, and Inonotus xeranticus, to investigate their relationship with Quercus species and suggest effective forest management practices in Korea. However, their study did not explore lignocellulose-degrading enzymatic activity. Similarly, Nguyen et al. [24] isolated 46 species of Basidiomycota from the bark of Quercus mongolica, measured their lignocellulose-degrading enzyme activities, and proposed methods to control fungal growth and spread. While decay management research on other Quercus species is ongoing, studies focused on the microbial activity and microbial decay mechanisms involved in the decay of Q. variabilis remain scarce. Therefore, we aimed to identify the microorganisms involved in Q. variabilis decay by isolating fungi from decayed tissues and evaluating their wood-decomposing ability. By providing insights into wood-decaying fungi, this research would help reduce economic losses caused by the limited use of Q. variabilis in various applications due to fungal decay.

Results and discussion

Comparison of fungal communities according to the decay of Q. variabilis

At the phylum level, Ascomycota was the most dominant in all Q. variabilis treatments, including the control (Fig. 1). Compared to the control, which was dominated in order of Ascomycota, Chytridiomycota, and Entomophthoromycota, the proportion of Basidiomycota increased significantly with the degree of decay in the degraded Q. variabilis. While Basidiomycota accounted for only 1.2% in the control, it represented 8.0%, 24.3%, 35.6%, and 42.3% in decayed Q. variabilis samples A, B, C, and D, respectively. This trend is consistent with the findings of Nguyen et al. [25], who reported that Ascomycota was the most prevalent phylum in the fungal communities of other oak species, such as Q. mongolica and Quercus serrata, followed by Basidiomycota. Similarly, Yuan et al. [26] observed that Ascomycota and Basidiomycota dominated the fungal communities of Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata, with the proportion of Basidiomycota increasing as wood decomposition advanced.

Fig. 1

Changes in the fungal community at the phylum level according to the decay of Q. variabilis. A Sawdust from A wood disk; B sawdust from B wood disk; C sawdust from C wood disk; D sawdust from D wood disk. Sawdust collected from all 18 points was homogenized to represent the entire Q. variabilis disk

Fungi naturally inhabit living trees, forming part of the fungal community. When new fungal species are introduced, such as through airborne spores, shifts in community composition begin [27]. Under favorable conditions, fungi that utilize lignocellulose as a nutrient source initiate the decomposition of wood’s primary carbohydrate components and become key players in the fungal community [28]. These fungi primarily belong to the phylum Ascomycota and Basidiomycota [29]. Cellulose, the primary carbohydrate in wood, is encased in lignin, a complex aromatic polymer that molds find difficult to penetrate. Wood-decaying fungi overcome this barrier by employing white rot, brown rot, or soft rot mechanisms [28]. Soft rot, typically caused by Ascomycota, is more effective in wood environments with high moisture content [13], whereas white rot and brown rot are predominantly driven by Basidiomycota [28]. Therefore, as illustrated in Fig. 1, the increasing competitiveness of Basidiomycota in the fungal community as wood decay progresses supports their significant role in the decomposition of Q. variabilis. These results highlight the effects caused by Basidiomycota through the induction of white rot and brown rot in Q. variabilis.

Fungal isolation and identification

As shown in Table 1, a total of 63 fungal species were isolated from decayed Q. variabilis. The obtained sequences showed over 96% identity with those in the NCBI GenBank database. Among the isolated fungi, 48 species were identified as Ascomycota (76.2%), 11 species as Basidiomycota (17.5%), and 4 species as Mucoromycota (6.3%). This provides valuable insights into the fungal species associated with Q. variabilis, allowing for the identification of those contributing to its decay. Ascomycota are known to cause soft rot, while Basidiomycota are the primary agents of brown and white rot [12]. Therefore, the 11 identified species of Basidiomycota likely play a significant role in the decay process of Q. variabilis. In particular, Phlebia acerina was isolated from both samples B and C, and Dentipellis rhizomorpha from both samples B and D, suggesting that these species may play a more significant role in the decay of Q. variabilis compared to other Basidiomycota.

Table 1 Information and extracellular enzyme activity of fungi isolated from decayed Q. variabilis

In a related study, Lee et al. [3] investigated wood-decaying fungi from six oak species of the genus Quercus and confirmed the presence of Schizophyllum commune, which was also identified in this study as originating from Q. variabilis. Similarly, Wang et al. [30] isolated fungi from the genera Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, and Penicillium from Q. variabilis, some of which were also found in the present study. Additionally, Lee et al. [3] and Wang et al. [30] identified 27 species of wood-decaying fungi, such as Abortiporus biennis, Antrodia heteromorpha, Bjerkandera fumosa, and Ceriporiopsis gilvescens, and 67 species of endophytes, including Acremonium sp., Pezicula sp., and Anthromycopsis sp., respectively.

Most of the fungi identified in this study are endogenous to plants or mainly inhabit environments surrounding wood, such as soil [31,32,33,34,35,36]. Specifically, the main habitat of the genus Penicillium, which included 11 species in this study, was primarily associated with soil [37]. Endogenous fungi typically exist in host plants without causing disease but can become pathogenic if the tree is weakened [12, 38]. In addition, soil-dwelling fungi play a vital role in nutrient cycling as root symbionts and wood decomposers [39, 40]. Therefore, these fungi are expected to contribute to the decay of Q. variabilis through multiple mechanisms.

Fungal extracellular enzyme activity screening

In fungal extracellular enzyme activity screening using carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and ABTS agar, 54 of 63 species showed cellulase activity, and laccase activity was observed in 32 of 63 species (Table 1). In addition, 31 fungi exhibited activity against both the enzymes. Among the 63 wood decay fungi, Annulohypoxylon truncatum [41], Aspergillus versicolor [42], Daedaleopsis rubescens [43], Emmia lacerata [44], Marasmius cladophyllus [45], Peniophora incarnata [46], Phlebia acerina [47], Schizophyllum commune [48, 49], Sistotrema brinkmannii [34], Spongipellis delectans [50], and Trametes cubensis [51] as known wood decay fungi showed cellulase or laccase activity. However, cellulase and laccase activities in Anteaglonium gordoniae, Juxtiphoma eupyrena, Ophiostoma querci, and Paraconiothyrium hakeae have never been reported, but their activities were confirmed for the first time in this study. Furthermore, Basidiomycota were laccase-active in 8 of 11 species (72.7%), including Peniophora incarnata, Spongipellis delectans, Pholiota aurivella, Dentipellis rhizomorpha, Trametes cubensis, Phlebia acerina, Emmia lacerata, and Daedaleopsis rubescens, whereas Ascomycota were laccase-active in 24 of 48 species (50%). Soft rot, which is closely related to Ascomycota, mainly degrades polysaccharides in wood and partially degrades lignin; however, its rate of strength losses due to fungal decay at the surface is intermediate between that of brown rot and white rot [12]. Brown rot causes a substantial reduction in wood strength at the early stages of decay [12]. White rot typically results in minimal strength loss until the later stages of degradation, and all layers of the cell wall are progressively eroded [52]. Soft rot penetrates from the exterior and degrades polysaccharides by forming cavities within the S2 layer, or extends internally to cause generalized erosion of the S2 layer [52]. Although they are incapable of completely degrading lignin, soft rot tends to cause large but localized damage, primarily near the wood surface [53, 54]. Therefore, it is presumed that this is the reason why the proportion of Ascomycota showing laccase activity in total Ascomycota was smaller than that of Basidiomycota showing laccase activity in total Basidiomycota. Conversely, in the case of Mucoromycota, no species showed laccase activity, and only Mortierella basiparvispora and Umbelopsis vinacea showed cellulase activity.

Broad-leaf degradation is associated with white rot, which degrades both cellulose and lignin, rather than brown rot [12]. Therefore, based on the above results, it can be inferred that Ascomycota or Basidiomycota confirmed to have both cellulase and laccase activities are more closely related to the decay of Q. variabilis than Mucoromycota. In addition, these results are meaningful in showing which fungi in Q. variabilis can decompose which components and affect Q. variabilis decay.

Cellulase and laccase activity of Basidiomycota

The enzyme activities required to decompose the main wood components by Basidiomycota were measured over a 19-day period (Figs. 2, 3). Of the 11 species of Basidiomycota isolated from decayed Q. variabilis, 8 species that secreted both cellulase and laccase were selected for the experiment. Wood is mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and Lignin, with cellulose as the primary component, making up 40–55% of the wood structure [55, 56]. Cellulose is a linear condensation polymerization by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds, which can be hydrolyzed by cellulase [57]. Lignin, primarily located in the middle lamella, serves as a binding agent for cellulose fibers and contributes significantly to the reinforcement of wood structures. Laccases act by oxidizing lignin structures through electron transfer mechanisms, which weakens the wood [56].

Fig. 2

Cellulase activity of Basidiomycota isolated from decayed Q. variabilis

Fig. 3

Laccase activity of Basidiomycota isolated from decayed Q. variabilis

Regarding cellulase activity, E. lacerata, P. acerina, and T. cubensis exhibited levels similar to the positive control (Trametes versicolor FRI 20251). Notably, P. acerina demonstrated a higher activity than the positive control, reaching a peak activity of 5.1 IU/mL on day 15, compared to the control's 4.7 IU/mL on day 11. E. lacerata and T. cubensis also showed comparable activities to the control, with 4.5 IU/mL on day 7 and 4.3 IU/mL on day 11, respectively. Additionally, S. delectans displayed a rapid increase in activity until day 9, reaching a maximum of 3.8 IU/mL, while D. rhizomorpha gradually increased in activity throughout the experiment, peaking at 3 IU/mL on day 17. In contrast, the cellulase activities of D. rubescens, P. aurivella, and P. incarnata were highest in the early stages, with maximum activities of 1.8 IU/mL on day 5, 0.8 IU/mL on day 7, and 2.4 IU/mL on day 7, respectively. Afterward, they maintained low activities.

For laccase activity, P. acerina again surpassed the positive control (Trametes versicolor FRI 20251), reaching 19.8 U/L on day 5, compared to the control’s 13.9 U/L on day 3. D. rhizomorpha followed closely, with a gradual increase in activity from day 1 to day 15, reaching a maximum of 13.9 U/L. In contrast, the laccase activities of D. rubescens, E. lacerata, P. incarnata, and S. delectans, which are known to cause white rot [43, 44, 46, 50], were relatively low. Because the activity of lignin-degrading enzymes can vary depending on the culture medium, it is possible that the measured activity was lower than the actual potential. Alternatively, these species may contribute to the decay of Q. variabilis through other lignin-degrading enzymes, such as lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP), versatile peroxidase (VP), and dye-decolorizing peroxidase (DyP) [58]. Lee et al. [59] reported MnP and LiP activities in P. incarnata, but studies on other wood-degrading enzymes in D. rubescens, E. lacerata, and S. delectans are still lacking. In this way, the majority of lignin-degrading fungi are capable of producing a diverse set of ligninolytic enzymes. Therefore, future studies should explore the activities of a broader range of wood-degrading enzymes in these and other fungal species, under various culture medium conditions, to more accurately assess enzymatic activity.

Among the species examined, P. acerina, which displayed the highest cellulase and laccase activities, is known to cause white rot [47]. Its laccase activity has also been confirmed in studies by Kuuskeri et al. [60] and Liu et al. [61]. On the other hand, D. rhizomorpha, which exhibited the second-highest laccase activity, has been less studied. This study marks the first report of the isolation of D. rhizomorpha in Korea. These findings suggest that the eight isolated species of Basidiomycota likely play significant roles in the decay of Q. variabilis.

Wood decomposing ability of Basidiomycota

Since wood decay results from complex and continuous interactions between wood and various microorganisms [11], the effects of wood rot fungi observed under experimental conditions may differ slightly from those in natural environments. Fungi responsible for wood decay break down wood components and utilize them as nutrients, leading to a reduction in both the strength and weight of the wood [62, 63]. To assess the impact of the isolated Basidiomycota strains on real wood, the weight loss rates of eight fungal species in Q. variabilis were measured (Fig. 4). The validity of the data was confirmed by measuring the weight loss of Pinus densiflora inoculated with Trametes versicolor FRI 20251. It is generally reported that such inoculation results in a Weight loss rate exceeding 15%, and in this study, a significantly higher rate of 30.9% was observed [64].

Fig. 4

Weight loss rate (%) of Q. variabilis and P. densiflora by isolated Basidiomycota: *p < 0.05 compared with NC. NC negative control, not inoculated; PC positive control, inoculated with Trametes versicolor FRI 20251

The highest weight loss rates were recorded for E. lacerata and P. acerina, with rates of 8.9% and 8.4% for Q. variabilis and 24.8% and 25.9% for P. densiflora, respectively. Consistent with previous enzyme activity measurements, strains with high cellulase activity generally exhibited strong decomposition capabilities. However, in the case of P. aurivella, despite lower cellulase activity, a high Weight loss rate was observed. This discrepancy may be attributed to differences in culture duration. Based on these results, it is Likely that after 19 days, the cellulase activity of P. aurivella could increase to levels comparable to S. delectans and T. cubensis, which demonstrated similar decomposing abilities.

Currently, P. acerina and E. lacerata are known to cause white rot, but limited studies exist on their ability to decompose Q. variabilis. These findings suggest that P. acerina and E. lacerata have decomposing abilities comparable to the positive control (9.9% for Q. variabilis and 30.9% for P. densiflora), indicating their significant involvement in the decay of Q. variabilis. Therefore, it is crucial to study methods for controlling these fungi. In the agriculture sector, Adedire OM et al. [65] demonstrated the effectiveness of Bacillus velezensis Ebs02 and B in managing E. lacerata infection in pepper. Likewise, by providing detailed information on the wood-decaying fungi that affect Q. variabilis, it might be possible to develop effective strategies for fungal management.

Conclusion

Exploring the microbial strains associated with Quercus variabilis decay is important to provide information on wood-decaying fungi that can help minimize the economic loss resulting from the limited use of Q. variabilis in various applications due to fungal decay. The decay of broad-leaved trees like Q. variabilis is primarily associated with white rot, with Basidiomycota being the dominant contributors. In this study, the microorganisms involved in the decay of Q. variabilis were identified by measuring the enzymatic activity and wood-decomposing ability of fungi isolated from decayed Q. variabilis samples.

During the isolation and identification of fungi, both endogenous fungi and those originating from various surrounding environments were observed, with soil-associated fungi being the most prevalent. In addition, P. acerina and D. rhizomorpha were the frequently isolated Basidiomycota from decayed Q. variabilis. A comparison of fungal communities revealed that the proportion of Ascomycota gradually declined as Q. variabilis decayed. In contrast, the competitiveness of Basidiomycota increased. Among these competitive Basidiomycota, Phlebia acerina exhibited the highest cellulase and laccase activities, indicating its significant role in the decomposition of Q. variabilis. Consistently, the greatest mass reduction in Q. variabilis was observed in samples inoculated with P. acerina, followed closely by those inoculated with Emmia lacerata. These findings suggest that P. acerina may play a key role in the degradation of Q. variabilis. However, the complex interactions between Q. variabilis and the isolated microorganisms remain unclear. Further studies are necessary to fully elucidate the mechanisms by which these fungi decompose Q. variabilis.

Materials and methods

Fungal collection and community analysis in Q. variabilis

Sampling

Living Q. variabilis used in this study were collected from an experimental forest at the Forest Technology and Management Research Center, National Institute of Forest Science, Gyeonggi-do, Korea. Two days after logging day, 10-cm-thick disks were cut at 30–40 cm from the butt of the log. By checking the condition of the cross section, decayed or discolored wood was used as the experimental group and the non-decayed wood as the control group. Additionally, the degree of wood decay was visually evaluated by experts from National Institute of Forest Science (Seoul, Korea) based on a combination of symptoms associated with fungal degradation, including radial discoloration, friability, cavity formation, softening, and the generation of wood powder. They were named A, B, C, and D in order of increasing wood decay (Fig. 5). Sample without these symptoms was used as the control. To prepare Q. variabilis samples for use in fungal isolation, identification, and community analysis, nine points per side of the Q. variabilis disks were designated. These points were three points each for the heartwood, sapwood, and the boundary between heartwood and sapwood regions. Each sample was collected from the midpoint between the outer and inner boundaries of each region. A total of 18 points were ground to a depth of 3 ~ 4 cm to obtain sawdust. The samples were collected in a manner that included both discolored and unaffected regions. For fungal community analysis, sawdust collected from all 18 points was homogenized to represent the entire Q. variabilis disk.

Fig. 5

Collected Q. variabilis samples: the degree of decay in Q. variabilis samples was evaluated by experts. A Radial discoloration and small cavities, with no reduction in strength; B pronounced radial discoloration and small cavities, with slight strength reduction; C pronounced discoloration, larger cavities, and substantial strength loss; D advanced decay with severe discoloration, marked strength loss, and abundant wood powder

Fungal community analysis

The fungal community of Q. variabilis was analyzed using Next-generation DNA sequencing (NGS). For fungal ITS2 sequencing using the Illumina MiSeq, the samples were submitted to the National Instrumentation Center for Environmental Management (NICEM). Using the DNeasy PowerSoil kit (Qiagen), the DNA of the entire fungal community was extracted from each sample according to the manufacturer’s instructions, and an index library for each sample was constructed using the kit. The ITS region was amplified using ITS3 and ITS4 (ITS3:5’-TCG TCG GCA GCG TCA GAT GTG TAT AAG AGA CAG GCA TCG ATG AAG AAC GCA GC-3,’ ITS4:5’-GTC TCG TGG GCT CGG AGA TGT GTA TAA GAG ACA GN NNTC CTC CGC TTA TTG ATA TGC-3’) primers [66]. Primers containing up to three additional N bases were mixed to be suitable for sequencing analysis technology. Amplification of the ITS region was performed using KAPA HiFi HotStart ReadyMix (Roche, Basel, Switzerland) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The PCR conditions are as follows: Initial phase for 3 min at 96 °C; 30 or 35 cycles 96 °C (30 s), 55 °C (30 s), 72 °C(30 s); Final extension for 5 min at 72 °C. The ITS2 PCR product was purified using the AMPure XP beads (Beckman Coulter, California, USA), and Index PCR was conducted using KAPA HiFi HotStart ReadyMix according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The reaction conditions are as follows: initial phase for 3 min at 96 °C; 8 cycles 96 °C (30 s), 55 °C (30 s), 72 °C (30 s); Final extension for 5 min at 72 °C. The index PCR product was purified using the AMPure XP beads. MiSeq sequencing was performed using the MiSeq Reagent Kit version 3 (Illumina, California, USA) in the base sequencing mode for 600 cycles. The valid read values of the fungal community analysis in the samples and the number of detected operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were confirmed using the CLcommunityTM software (ChunLab Inc., Seoul, Korea), in which OTUs were clustered using a CD-HIT-based algorithm [67]. Biological diversity in the samples was investigated based on the Ace, Chao1, Jackknife, NPShannon, and Simpson indices, as calculated through algorithms implemented within CLcommunityTM. Good’s coverage of library values ≥ 99% in each sample confirmed that the OTUs could be representative of the microbial community in the samples.

Fungal isolation and identification

Q. variabilis samples were placed on a potato dextrose agar (PDA) plate (DifcoTM potato dextrose agar, Becton, Dickinson and Company, New Jersey, USA) containing 100 ppm streptomycin sulfate (Duchefa Biochemie, Haarlem, Netherlands). In addition, PDA plate that 4 ppm benomyl (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri, USA) was added to the above plate was used to isolate more Basidiomycota. Plates loaded with samples were incubated at room temperature. Fungal colonies grown around the sample were cultured separately from each other on a new PDA plate, and this process was repeated until a single colony was obtained. A single colony was then transferred to another PDA plate using a transfer tube and cultured until the entire plate was covered. The cultured plates were subjected to Biofact (BIOFACT Co., Ltd., Daejeon, Korea) for fungus identification. gDNA was extracted using the HiGeneTM Genomic DNA Prep Kit for Microorganisms (Biofact, Daejeon, Korea) and identified using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of fungal nuclear rDNA. ITS was amplified using ITS1 and ITS4 (ITS1:5’-TCC GTA GGT GAA CCT GCG G-3,’ ITS4:5’-TCC TCC GCT TAT TGA TAT GC-3’) primers [68], and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) conditions were as follows: initial phase for 3 min at 95 °C; 40 cycles 95 °C (20 s), 56 °C (40 s), 72 °C (1 min); final extension for 5 min at 72 °C. The amplified PCR products were sequenced by a DNA sequencing service (Biofact, Daejeon, Korea) using the same primers as those used for amplification. The results were compared with fungal sequences from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) using basic local alignment search tool (BLAST) algorithms.

Lignocellulose-degrading enzyme activities

Strains

Isolated 63 species fungi were inoculated into PDA plates containing 100 ppm streptomycin and incubated for 5 - 32 days until the entire plate was covered by blocking Light in a 25 °C incubator. Cultured fungi were used to screen extracellular enzyme activity, measure cellulase and laccase activity, and evaluate wood rot ability. As a positive control, Trametes versicolor FRI 20251 was used and cultured for 7 d under the same conditions as the other fungi.

Screening of extracellular enzyme activity

Cellulase is an enzyme that decomposes the cellulose component of wood, and laccase is one of the representative enzymes that degrades lignin [69]. Sixty-three species of fungi isolated from Q. variabilis were tested for their extracellular cellulase and laccase activities, according to a study by Jeong and Ka [70].

Cellulase activity was measured using carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) sodium salt as a substrate. After inoculating one fungal inoculum with a diameter of 6 mm on the prepared CMC agar plate (0.2% NaNO3, 0.1% K2HPO4, 0.05% MgSO4, 0.05% KCl, 0.2% CMC sodium salt, 0.02% peptone, 1.5% agar, w/v), it was cultured for 2 days in a 25 °C incubator by blocking Light. The medium, in which 1 mL of Gram’s iodine solution (0.67% KI, 0.33% I2, w/v) was dropped into the center, was covered with aluminum foil and left at room temperature for 2 h. The diameters of the active cellulase regions around the inoculum were measured.

Laccase activity was measured using 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) diammonium salt as a substrate. After inoculating one fungal inoculum with a diameter of 6 mm on the prepared ABTS agar (0.2% K2HPO4, 0.2% MgSO4·7H2O, 0.2% KCl, 0.055% ABTS, 1.5% agar, pH 5.0, w/v), it was cultured for 5 days in a 25 °C incubator by blocking light. The diameter of the blue-green circle formed at the center of the medium was measured.

Cellulase activity

Cellulase activity was measured according to the DNS method using an enzyme solution [71]. To measure cellulase activity, eight species of Basidiomycota (Dentipellis rhizomorpha, Daedaleopsis rubescens, Emmia lacerata, Phlebia acerina, Poliota aurivella, Peniophora incarnata, Spongipellis delectans, Trametes cubensis) were inoculated into 50 mL modified TYE medium with CMC sodium salt (0.7% tryptone, 0.3% yeast extract, 0.5% K2HPO4, 0.5% KH2PO4, 0.3% MgSO4·7H2O, 1% CMC, w/v) and cultured at 25 °C at 100 rpm for 19 days [72]. The culture solution was centrifuged at 4 °C at 15,000 rpm for 5 min, and the supernatant was used as an enzyme solution. The supernatant was mixed with 2% CMC at a ratio of 1:1 and reacted in a 50 °C water bath for 30 min. The DNS solution, 3 mL, was added to the reactant (1 mL), placed in boiling water for 5 min, and immediately immersed in ice water to stop the reaction. Distilled water, 20 mL, was added and the absorbance was measured at 540 nm. Cellulase activity was expressed in IU (International Unit)/mL; 1 IU/mL is defined as 1 μmol of glucose produced per minute by the enzyme solution.

Laccase activity

Laccase activity was measured referring to study of Li et al. [73]. To measure laccase activity, eight species of Basidiomycota were inoculated into 50 mL of Potato Dextrose Broth (DifcoTM potato dextrose broth, Becton, Dickinson and Company, New Jersey, USA) [74,75,76,77,78,79] and cultured under the same conditions as for cellulase activity. The culture solution was centrifuged at 4 °C at 15,000 rpm for 5 min, and the supernatant was used as an enzyme solution. The enzyme solution 1.5 mL, sodium acetate buffer (1 mM, pH 5.0) 1.5 mL, and ABTS (0.5 mM) 1.5 mL was mixed to measure the cation radicals generated per minute at 420 nm. (ε420 = 36,000 M−1 cm−1) Laccase activity was expressed in U/L; 1 U/L is defined as 1 μmol of substrate that the enzyme solution oxidizes per minute [80].

Evaluation of fungal wood-decomposing ability

The fungal wood-decomposing ability on Quercus variabilis was evaluated according to KS F 2213:2004. Trametes versicolor FRI 20251, a test fungus commonly used for broad-leaved trees, served as the positive control. The subcultured fungi were pre-cultured in Potato Dextrose Broth at 25 °C, shaking at 100 rpm for 7 days. Q. variabilis samples were cut into 20 mm ×ばつ 20 mm ×ばつ 20 mm pieces from heartwood that did not contain pith. The samples were dried in a 60 °C oven for 48 h, cooled in a desiccator for 30 min, and their initial weights (W1) were measured and recorded. For comparison, sapwood specimens of Pinus densiflora were prepared in the same way as the Q. variabilis samples. In 500-mL glass bottles, 250 g of dried sea sand and 80 mL of culture medium (containing 2.5% glucose, 1% malt extract, 0.5% peptone, 0.3% KH2PO4, and 0.2% MgSO4·7H2O) were sterilized at 121 °C for 30 min. After sterilization, 3 mL of the pre-culture medium was inoculated, and the bottles were incubated at 25 °C with over 70% humidity until the fungal cultures fully covered the surface (between 3 to 21 days). Once the fungal cultures were established, three prepared wood specimens were placed in the bottles and left to decay under the same conditions for 60 days. The decayed specimens were washed with running water and air-dried for approximately 20 h. After drying in a 60 °C oven for 48 h, the specimens were cooled in a desiccator for 30 min, and their final weights (W2) were measured and recorded. The weight reduction rates of the samples were calculated as follows:

$${\text{Weight reduction rate }}\left( \% \right) ,円 = ,円 \left( {W_{1} - W_{2} } \right) ,円 /W_{1} \times{1}00.$$
(1)

Statistical analysis

All results are expressed as mean ± SD (n = 3). The difference between experimental groups was compared by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s HSD using R software version 4.2.1 (R Project for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). The result with p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Data availability

The datasets used during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

CMC:

carboxymethyl cellulose

LiP:

lignin peroxidase

MnP:

manganese peroxidase

VP:

versatile peroxidase

DyP:

dye-decolorizing peroxidase

NICEM:

National Instrumentation Center for Environmental Management

OTUs:

operational taxonomic units

PDA:

potato dextrose agar

PCR:

polymerase chain reaction

NCBI:

National Center for Biotechnology Information

BLAST:

basic local alignment search tool

ANOVA:

one-way analysis of variance

References

  1. Yang L, Wang D, Zhou D, Zhang Y (2016) Effect of different isolation methods on structure and properties of lignin from valonea of Quercus variabilis. Int J Biol Macromol 85:417–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.201601005

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Wei S, Song Y, Jia L (2021) Influence of the slope aspect on the ectomycorrhizal fungal community of Quercus variabilis Blume in the middle part of the Taihang Mountains, North China. J For Res 32:385–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-019-01083-9

    Article Google Scholar

  3. Lee J, Jung H, Lim Y (2008) A checklist of decay fungi associated with oak trees in Korea. Korean J Mycol 36(2):101–115. https://doi.org/10.4489/KJM.2008362.101

    Article Google Scholar

  4. Ferreira J, Miranda I, Şen U, Pereira H (2016) Chemical and cellular features of virgin and reproduction cork from Quercus variabilis. Ind Crops Prod 94:638–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016年09月03日8

    Article Google Scholar

  5. Jiang P, Chen Y, Cao Y (2017) C:N: p stoichiometry and carbon storage in a naturally-regenerated secondary Quercus variabilis forest age sequence in the Qinling Mountains China. Forests 8(8):281. https://doi.org/10.3390/f8080281

    Article Google Scholar

  6. Aronson J, Pereira JS, Pausas JG (eds) (2012) Cork oak woodlands on the edge: ecology, adaptive management, and restoration. Island Press, Washington

    Google Scholar

  7. Kang J, Ko C, Moon G, Lee S, Lee S, Yim J (2020) Effect of tree DBH and age on stem decay in Quercus mongolica and Quercus variabilis. J Korean Soc For Sci 109(4):492–503. https://doi.org/10.14578/JKFS.2020.109.4.492

    Article Google Scholar

  8. Bae S, Kim J, Kim K, Hong K, Kim I, Kim J, Ji B, Kim H, Jo M, Kim K (2012) Gyeongjesujong 2 Chamnamu(Economic species of trees 2 Oak). National Institute of Forest Science, Seoul. (in Korean)

  9. McDonald PM, Tappeiner JC (1996) Silviculture-ecology of forest-zone hardwoods in the Sierra Nevada. In: the SNEP Science Team (eds). Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project Final report to Congress Davis Centers for Water and Wildland Resources. University of California. California

  10. Edberg R, Berry A (1999) Patterns of structural failures in urban trees: Coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia). Arboric Urban For 25(1):48–55. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.1999.008

    Article Google Scholar

  11. Bari E, Karim M, Oladi R, Tajick Ghanbary MA, Ghodskhah Daryaei M, Schmidt O, Benz JP, Emaminasab M (2017) A comparison between decay patterns of the white-rot fungus Pleurotus ostreatus in chestnut-leaved oak (Quercus castaneifolia) shows predominantly simultaneous attack both in vivo and in vitro. Forens Pathol 47(4):e12338. https://doi.org/10.1111/efp.12338

    Article Google Scholar

  12. Schwarze FWMR, Engels J, Mattheck C (2000) Fungal strategies of wood decay in trees. Springer, Heidelberg

    Book Google Scholar

  13. Schultz TP, Militz H, Freeman MH, Goodell B, Nicholas DD (2008) Development of commercial wood preservatives: efficacy, environmental, and health issues. Oxford University Press Inc, Oxford

    Book Google Scholar

  14. Blanchette R, Obst J, Hedges J, Weliky K (1988) Resistance of hardwood vessels to degradation by white rot Basidiomycetes. Can J Bot 66:1841–1847. https://doi.org/10.1139/b88-251

    Article Google Scholar

  15. Schwarze F, Lonsdale D, Mattheck C (1995) Detectability of wood decay caused by Ustulina deusta in comparison with other tree-decay fungi. Eur J For Pathol 25:327–341. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0329.1995.tb01348.x

    Article Google Scholar

  16. Schwarze F, Lonsdale D, Fink S (1995) Soft rot and multiple T-branching by the basidiomycete Inonotus hispidus in ash and London plane. Mycol Res 99(7):813–820. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80732-6

    Article Google Scholar

  17. Dalponte M, Kallio AJI, Ørka HO, Næsset E, Gobakken T (2022) Wood decay detection in Norway spruce forests based on airborne hyperspectral and ALS data. Remote Sens 14(8):1892. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14081892

    Article Google Scholar

  18. Konuma R, Umezawa K, Mizukoshi A, Kawarada K, Yoshida M (2015) Analysis of microbial volatile organic compounds produced by wood-decay fungi. Biotechnol Lett 37(9):1845–1852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10529-015-1870-9

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  19. Wilcox WW (1978) Review of literature on the effects of early stages of decay on wood strength. Wood Fiber Sci 9(4):252–257

    Google Scholar

  20. Schwaab J, Davin EL, Bebi P, Duguay-Tetzlaff A, Waser LT, Haeni M, Meier R (2020) Increasing the broad-leaved tree fraction in European forests mitigates hot temperature extremes. Sci Rep 10:14153. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71055-1

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  21. Pukkala T (2018) Effect of species composition on ecosystem services in European boreal forest. J For Res 29:261–272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-017-0576-3

    Article Google Scholar

  22. Shi X, Wen Q, Cao M, Guo X, Xu L (2017) Genetic diversity and structure of natural Quercus variabilis population in China as revealed by microsatellites markers. Forests 8(12):495. https://doi.org/10.3390/f8120495

    Article Google Scholar

  23. National Geography Information Institute (2016) Daehanminguk Gukga Jidojip II (Republic of Korea National Atlas II), Jinhan M&B, Seoul. (in Korean)

  24. Nguyen MH, Kim D, Park J, Park Y, Lee M, Choi M, Lee D, Lee J (2021) Identification, enzymatic activity, and decay ability of basidiomycetous fungi isolated from the decayed bark of Mongolian Oak (Quercus mongolica Fisch. Ex Ledeb.). J For Environ Sci 37(1):52–61. https://doi.org/10.7747/JFES.2021371.52

    Article Google Scholar

  25. Nguyen MH, Shin K, Lee J (2021) Fungal community analyses of endophytic fungi from two oak species, Quercus mongolica and Quercus serrata, in Korea. Mycobiology 49(4):385–395. https://doi.org/10.1080/12298093.2021.1948175

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  26. Yuan J, Zheng X, Cheng F, Zhu X, Hou L, Li J, Zhang S (2017) Fungal community structure of fallen pine and oak wood at different stages of decomposition in the Qinling Mountains, China. Sci Rep 7:13866. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14425-6

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  27. Fukasawa Y, Matsukura K (2021) Decay stages of wood and associated fungal communities characterise diversity–decomposition relationships. Sci Rep 11:8972. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-88580-2

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  28. Ottosson E (2013) Succession of wood-inhabiting fungal communities. Institutionen fӧr skoglig mykologi och vӓxtpatologi, Uppsala.

  29. Lynne B (2001) Fungal community ecology and wood decomposition processes in angiosperms: from standing tree to complete decay of coarse woody debris. Ecol Bull 49:43–56

    Google Scholar

  30. Wang F, Jiao R, Cheng A, Tan S, Song Y (2007) Antimicrobial potentials of endophytic fungi residing in Quercus variabilis and brefeldin A obtained from Cladosporium Sp. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 23:79–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-006-9195-4

    Article Google Scholar

  31. Wang H, Yang X, Wei S (2022) Analysis of Aspergillus versicolor exudate composition. J Basic Microbiol 62(10):1241–1253. https://doi.org/10.1002/jobm.202200117

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  32. Sun P, Huo J, Kurtán T, Mándi A, Antus S, Tang H, Draeger S, Schulz B, Hussain H, Krohn K, Pan W, Yi Y (2013) Structural and stereochemical studies of hydroxyanthraquinone derivatives from the endophytic fungus Coniothyrium sp. Chirality 25(2):141–148. https://doi.org/10.1002/chir.22128

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  33. Yasanthika E, Wanasinghe DN, Ren GC, Karunarathna SC, Tennakoon DS, Monkai J, Gui H, Mortimer PE, Lumyong S, Hyde KD (2021) Taxonomic and phylogenetic insights into novel ascomycota from contaminated soils in Yunnan, China. Phytotaxa 513(3):203–225. https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.513.3.2

    Article Google Scholar

  34. Potvin LR, Richter DL, Jurgensen MF, Dumroese RK (2012) Association of Pinus banksiana Lamb. and Populus tremuloides Michx. seedling fine roots with Sistotrema brinkmannii (Bres.) J. Erikss. (Basidiomycotina). Mycorrhiza 22(8):631–638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00572-012-0440-4

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  35. Dickinson GM, Cleary TJ, Sanderson T, McGinnis MR (1983) First case of subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis caused by Scytalidium lignicola in a human. J Clin Microbiol 17(1):155–158. https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.17.1.155-158.1983

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  36. Arredondo-Santoyo M, MaS V-G, Vázquez-Marrufo G (2018) Identification and characterization of the biotechnological potential of a wild strain of Paraconiothyrium Sp. Biotechnol Prog 34(4):846–857. https://doi.org/10.1002/btpr.2653

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  37. Petit P, Lucas EMF, Abreu LM, Pfenning LH, Takahashi JA (2009) Novel antimicrobial secondary metabolites from a Penicillium Sp. isolated from Brazilian Cerrado soil. Electron J Biotechnol 12(4):8–9

    Google Scholar

  38. Oses R, Valenzuela S, Freer J, Sanfuentes E, Rodriguez J (2008) Fungal endophytes in xylem of healthy Chilean trees and their possible role in early wood decay. Fungal Divers 33:77–86

    Google Scholar

  39. Watkinson S, Bebber D, Darrah P, Fricker M, Tlalka M, Boddy L (2006) The role of wood decay fungi in the carbon and nitrogen dynamics of the forest floor. In: Gadd GM (ed) Fungi in Biogeochemical Cycles. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar

  40. Ritz K (2006) Fungal roles in transport processes in soils. In: Gadd GM (ed) Fungi in biogeochemical cycles. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar

  41. Hwang B, Lee D, Choi P, Kim K, Choi S, Song B, Kim T, Song J, Kang K, Ham J (2018) Renoprotective effects of hypoxylonol C and F isolated from Hypoxylon truncatum against cisplatin-induced cytotoxicity in LLC-PK1 cells. Int J Mol Sci 19(4):948. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19040948

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  42. Al-tememe ZAM, Lahuf AA, Kareem Ali A, Kadhim AA, AL-Mosawy MM (2019) A survey and molecular identification of Aspergillus versicolor causing brown rot on imported spruce (Picea canadensis) wood in Karbala Province Iraq and control it using copper boron chromate. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/388/1/012010

    Article Google Scholar

  43. Zhang Y, Wang X, Miao T, Wang C (2019) Investigation and diversity analysis of white rot fungus resources in Xian-Weng Mountain National Forest Park in Yichun. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 358:022044. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/358/2/022044

    Article Google Scholar

  44. Fusco V, Pasciuta V, Lumia V, Matere A, Battaglia V, Bertinelli G, Sansone D, Brunetti A, Pilotti M (2022) Root and stem rot, and wilting of olive tree caused by Dematophora necatrix and associated with Emmia lacerata in Central Italy. Eur J Plant Pathol 163(1):71–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10658-022-02458-1

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  45. Birhanlı E, Yeşilada Ö, Çabuk A, Boran F, Tatlıcı E (2021) Comparatively investigation of textile dye decolorization by a white rot fungus and various bacterial strains. Adiyaman Univ J Sci 11(2):350–361. https://doi.org/10.37094/adyujsci.973203

    Article Google Scholar

  46. Lee H, Jang Y, Lee Y, Lee H, Kim G, Kim J (2015) Enhanced removal of PAHs by Peniophora incarnata and ascertainment of its novel ligninolytic enzyme genes. J Environ Manage 164:10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015年08月03日6

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  47. Kumar R, Negi S, Sharma P, Prasher IB, Chaudhary S, Dhau JS, Umar A (2018) Wastewater cleanup using Phlebia acerina fungi: an insight into mycoremediation. J Environ Manage 228:130–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018年07月09日1

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  48. Raper JR, Miles PG (1958) The genetics of Schizophyllum commune. Genetics 43(3):530–546. https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/43.3.530

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  49. Takemoto S, Nakamura H, Imamura Y, Shimane T (2010) Schizophyllum commune as a ubiquitous plant parasite. Jpn Agric Res Q 44(4):357–364. https://doi.org/10.6090/jarq.44.357

    Article Google Scholar

  50. Dai YC, Cui BK, Yuan HS, Li BD (2007) Pathogenic wood-decaying fungi in China. For Pathol 37(2):105–120. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0329.2007.00485.x

    Article Google Scholar

  51. Parihar J, Tiwari CK, Ayachi A, Verma RK (2012) Biodegradation of cellulose by wood decaying fungi. J Appl Sci Environ Sanit 7:209–214

    Google Scholar

  52. Blanchette R (2000) A review of microbial deterioration found in archaeological wood from different environments. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 46:189–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0964-8305(00)00077-9

    Article Google Scholar

  53. Goodell B, Winandy J, Morrell J (2020) Fungal degradation of wood: emerging data, new insights and changing perceptions. Coatings 10:1210. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings10121210

    Article Google Scholar

  54. Schwarze F (2007) Wood decay under the microscope. Fungal Biol Rev 21:133–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.200709001

    Article Google Scholar

  55. Yoon S, Kim Y, Kim Y, Kim T (2018) A novel endo-β-1,4-xylanase from Acanthophysium sp. KMF001, a wood rotting fungus. J Korean Wood Sci Technol 46(6):670–680. https://doi.org/10.5658/WOOD.2018466.670

    Article Google Scholar

  56. Khezami L, Chetouani A, Taouk B, Capart R (2005) Production and characterisation of activated carbon from wood components in powder: cellulose, lignin, xylan. Powder Technol 157:48–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.200505009

    Article Google Scholar

  57. Zhang YHP, Lynd LR (2004) Toward an aggregated understanding of enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose: noncomplexed cellulase systems. Biotechnol Bioeng 88(7):797–824. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.20282

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  58. Kumar VP, Sridhar M, Rao RG (2022) Biological depolymerization of lignin using laccase harvested from the autochthonous fungus Schizophyllum commune employing various production methods and its efficacy in augmenting in vitro digestibility in ruminants. Sci Rep 12:11170. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15211-9

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  59. Lee H, Yun S, Jang S, Kim G, Kim J (2015) Bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in creosote-contaminated soil by Peniophora incarnata KUC8836. Bioremediation J 19(1):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/10889868.2014.939136

    Article Google Scholar

  60. Kuuskeri J, Mäkelä MR, Isotalo J, Oksanen I, Lundell T (2015) Lignocellulose-converting enzyme activity profiles correlate with molecular systematics and phylogeny grouping in the incoherent genus Phlebia (Polyporales, Basidiomycota). BMC Microbiol 15:217. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-015-0538-x

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  61. Liu WX, Zhao MY, Li MX, Li XQ, Zhang TX, Chen X, Yan XY, Bian LS, An Q, Li WJ, Han ML (2022) Laccase activities from three white-rot fungal species isolated from their native habitat in North China using solid-state fermentation with lignocellulosic biomass. Bioresour 17(1):1533–1550. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.17.1.1533-1550

    Article Google Scholar

  62. Curling S, Clausen C, Winandy J (2002) Relationships between mechanical properties, weight loss, and chemical composition of wood during incipient brown-rot decay. For Prod J 52(7):34–37

    Google Scholar

  63. Marcot BG (2017) A review of the role of fungi in wood decay of forest ecosystems. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, pp 1–32, Research Note PNW-RN-575. https://doi.org/10.2737/PNW-RN-575.

  64. Son D, Kang M, Lee D, Park S (2013) Decay resistance and anti-mold efficacy of wood treated with fire retardants. J Korean wood sci & tech 41(6):559–565. https://doi.org/10.5658/WOOD.2013416.559

    Article Google Scholar

  65. Adedire O, Adedire D, Owoeye T, Aina A (2024) Influence of inoculum concentration on In Vivo incubation period of Emmia lacerate, pathogenesis and management of wilt in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Pharm Res 8(4):000325. https://doi.org/10.2388/oajpr-16000325

    Article Google Scholar

  66. Kim D, Kim H, Seo K (2020) Microbial composition of Korean kefir and antimicrobial activity of Acetobacter fabarum DH1801. J Food Saf 40:e12728. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfs.12728

    Article Google Scholar

  67. Li W, Godzik A (2006) Cd-hit: a fast program for clustering and comparing large sets of protein or nucleotide sequences. Bioinform 22(13):1658–1659. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btl158

    Article Google Scholar

  68. White T, Bruns T, Lee S, Taylor J (1990) Amplification and direct sequencing of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenetics. In: Innis M, Gelfand D, Sninsky J, White T (eds) PCR protocols: A guide to methods and applications. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar

  69. Kumar A, Chandra R (2020) Ligninolytic enzymes and its mechanisms for degradation of lignocellulosic waste in environment. Heliyon 6:e03170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03170

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  70. Jeong Y, Ka K (2014) Effects of preservation period at low temperature on the mycelial growth and the lignocellulolytic enzyme activities of basidiomycetes. Kor J Mycol 42(4):322–327. https://doi.org/10.4489/KJM.2014424.322

    Article Google Scholar

  71. Ghose TK (1987) Measurement of cellulase activities. Pure Appl Chem 59(2):257–268. https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198759020257

    Article Google Scholar

  72. Yoon S, Park S, Kim T, Kim Y, Kim Y (2019) Acanthophysium sp. KMF001, a new strain with high cellulase activity. J Korean Wood Sci Technol 47(6):751–760. https://doi.org/10.5658/WOOD.2019476.751

    Article Google Scholar

  73. Li A, Zhu Y, Xu L, Zhu W, Tian X (2008) Comparative study on the determination of assay for laccase of Trametes Sp. Afr J Biochem Res 2(8):181–183

    Google Scholar

  74. Vaithanomsat P, Sangnam A, Boonpratuang T, Choeyklin R, Promkiam-on P, Chuntranuluck S, Kreetachat T (2013) Wood degradation and optimized laccase production by resupinate white-rot fungi in northern Thailand. BioResources 8(4):6342–6360. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.8.4.6342-6360

    Article Google Scholar

  75. Luong T, Silar P, Poeaim S, Tangthirasunun N (2025) Isolation, screening wood rot fungi from the tropical forest of Thailand and their lignocellulolytic enzyme production under solid-state fermentation using agricultural waste as substrate. Biomass Convers Biorefin 15:2915–2931. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-023-05129-1

    Article Google Scholar

  76. Dao A, Vonck J, Janssens T, Dang H, Brouwer A, Boer T (2019) Screening white-rot fungi for bioremediation potential of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Ind Crops Prod 128:153–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018年10月05日9

    Article Google Scholar

  77. Subowo YB (2019) Screening of basidiomycetes with laccase activity for lignin degradation on POME. IOP Conf Series: Earth Environ Sci 308:012013. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/308/1/012013

    Article Google Scholar

  78. Setiarto R, Saskiawan I (2013) The lignocellulolytic activity and ability to produce indole acetic acid hormone of fungal inoculant isolated from spent mushroom (Agaricus sp.) substrate. Microbiol Indones 7(4):192–197. https://doi.org/10.5454/mi.7.4.8

    Article Google Scholar

  79. Laothanachareon T, Kongtong K, Saeng-Kla KP, Leetanasaksakul K, Champreda V (2023) Evaluating the efficacy of wood decay fungi and synthetic fungal consortia for simultaneous decolorization of multiple textile dyes. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 39:226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-023-03672-7

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  80. Agrawal K, Verma P (2019) Laccase: addressing the ambivalence associated with the calculation of enzyme activity. 3 Biotech 9(10):365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-019-1895-1

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Download references

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

Funding

This study was supported by the National Institute of Forest Science [Grant number: SC0500-2018–01-2022].

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Forest Industrial Materials Division, Forest Products and Industry Department, National Institute of Forest Science, 57, Hoegi-Ro, Dongdaemun-Gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea

    Hyunjeong Na & Mi-Jin Park

  2. Wood Industry Division, Forest Products and Industry Department, National Institute of Forest Science, 57, Hoegi-Ro, Dongdaemun-Gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea

    Sae-Min Yoon

  3. Forest Technology and Management Research Center, National Institute of Forest Science, 498, Gwangneungsumonwon-Ro, Soheul-Eup, Pocheon-Si, Gyeonggi-Do, Republic of Korea

    Sanghoon Chung

Authors
  1. Hyunjeong Na
  2. Sae-Min Yoon
  3. Sanghoon Chung
  4. Mi-Jin Park

Contributions

HN designed and conducted the experiments, analyzed and visualized the data, wrote the original draft of the manuscript, reviewed, and edited this manuscript. SY designed the experiments and reviewed the manuscript. SC conceptualized the experiment and acquired the funding. MP conceptualized and designed the experiment, acquired the funding, supervised this experiment, reviewed, and edited this manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mi-Jin Park.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

About this article

Cite this article

Na, H., Yoon, SM., Chung, S. et al. Enzymatic activities and degradation properties of fungi isolated from decayed Quercus variabilis. J Wood Sci 71, 55 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s10086-025-02225-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s10086-025-02225-w

Keywords

AltStyle によって変換されたページ (->オリジナル) /