Edible mushroom

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Edible mushrooms are the fleshy fruit bodies of numerous species of properly identified and prepared fungi. Edibility may be defined by criteria including their palatability and absence of dangerous mycotoxins. Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value, often either being cultivated or harvested wild. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets; those that are more difficult to obtain may be collected on a smaller scale.

To ensure safety, wild mushrooms must be correctly identified before their edibility can be assumed. Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms include several species of the genus Amanita , particularly A. phalloides (the death cap). Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in others; old or improperly stored specimens can cause food poisoning. Additionally, mushrooms can absorb chemicals from polluted locations, accumulating pollutants and potentially lethal heavy metals.

Psychoactive mushrooms can also be confused with edible species. Additionally, mushrooms were consumed medicinally in traditional medicine, but are not upheld by evidence.

Mushrooms can appear either below ground (hypogeous) or above ground (epigeous) and can be picked by hand.^[1] The act of foraging fungi is referred to as mushroom hunting . Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets; those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the truffle, matsutake, and morel) may be collected on a smaller scale and are sometimes available at farmers' markets or other local grocers.^{[citation needed ]}

Edibility may be defined by criteria including desirable taste and aroma and the absence of poisonous effects on humans.^[2] Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value. Mushrooms, especially dried shiitake, are sources of umami flavor.^{[3] [4]}

Scientific name	Common name	Description	Distribution	Cultivation	Edibility
Agaricus arvensis	Horse mushroom	Resembles Amanita species	Harvested wild	Edible for most people, but can resemble deadly Amanitas[5]
Agaricus bisporus	Button mushroom, common mushroom, cremini, portobello, and others[6] [7] [8] [9]	As it ages, it turns from small, white and smooth to large and light brown.	Europe and North America, native to grasslands	Widely cultivated
Agaricus campestris	Field mushroom	Harvested wild	Choice,[10] [11] but can resemble poisonous species[12]
Agaricus silvaticus	Pinewood mushroom	Harvested wild	Edible cooked,[13] [14] but resembles some inedible species[15]
Aleuria aurantia	Orange peel fungus	Harvested wild
Amanita caesarea	Caesar's mushroom	Harvested wild
Amanita fulva	Tawny grisette	Must be cooked
Amanita muscaria	Parboiling required to leach out toxins;[16] fresh mushrooms cause vomiting, twitching, drowsiness, and hallucinations due to the presence of muscimol. Ibotenic acid is not present in high enough concentration to produce any physical or psychological effects unless massive amounts are ingested.
Amanita rubescens	Blusher	Must be cooked
Armillaria mellea	Honey mushroom	Harvested wild
Boletus badius	Bay bolete	Harvested wild
Boletus edulis	Porcino	Europe	Commercially harvested	Choice[17]
Boletus pinophilus	Pine bolete[18]	Commercially harvested
Boletus variipes	Commercially harvested	Choice[19]
Calbovista subsculpta	Sculptured giant puffball	Up to 15 cm (6 in) wide	Western North America in montane areas	Commercially harvested	Choice while the gleba is still firm and white[20]
Calocybe gambosa	St. George's mushroom	Harvested wild
Calvatia cyathiformis	Purple-spored puffball	Harvested wild
Calvatia gigantea	Giant puffball	Up to 60 cm (20 in) wide and 20 kilograms (45 lb)[21]	Temperate areas around the world in meadows, fields, and deciduous forests from late summer and autumn[21] [22]	Commercially harvested	Choice when immature and white, but may cause a laxative effect[22]
Calvatia utriformis (syn. Lycoperdon caelatum)	Harvested wild
Cantharellus cibarius	Golden chanterelle	Europe[23]	Commercially harvested	Choice[24] but resembles some poisonous mushrooms[25] [26]
Chroogomphus	Pine-spikes or spike-caps	Harvested wild
Clavariaceae	Coral fungi	Harvested wild
Clavulinaceae	Coral fungi	Harvested wild
Clitocybe nuda	Blewit[27]	Commercially harvested
Coprinopsis atramentaria (syn. Coprinus atramentarius)	Common inkcap	Toxic if consumed with alcohol due to the presence of coprine
Coprinus comatus	Shaggy mane, shaggy inkcap or lawyer's wig	Harvested wild	Must be cooked as soon as possible after harvesting or the caps will darken as they deliquesce and turn to ink
Cortinarius caperatus	Gypsy mushroom	Commercially harvested	Choice,[28] but can resemble some poisonous European species[29]
Craterellus cornucopioides	Trumpet of death or horn of plenty	Commercially harvested	Choice[30]
Craterellus tubaeformis	Tube chanterelle or yellowfoot	Small mushroom	Commercially harvested	Choice[31]
Cyclocybe aegerita	Poplar	Commercially cultivated	Difficult to identify[32] [33]
Cyttaria espinosae	Harvested wild
Fistulina hepatica	Beefsteak polypore or ox tongue	Harvested wild
Flammulina filiformis	Enoki	Commercially cultivated	Asian cuisine[34]
Flammulina velutipes	Velvet shank[35]	Harvested wild
Gomphidius glutinosus	Slimy spike-cap	Harvested wild
Grifola frondosa	Hen of the woods or sheep's head	Large mushroom	Eastern North America	Commercially harvested	Choice[36] but some may be allergic[37]
Gyromitra esculenta	False morel, turban or brain mushroom	Parboiling required to reduce gyromitrin toxicity, which may not be fully effective
Hericium erinaceus	Lion's mane[38]	A tooth fungus	Commercially harvested
Hydnum repandum	Sweet tooth or hedgehog mushroom[39]	Commercially harvested
Hygrophorus chrysodon	Gold flecked woodwax	Harvested wild
Hypsizygus tessulatus	Beech mushroom	Commercially cultivated	Tough flesh[40]
Kalaharituber pfeilii	Harvested wild
Lactarius corrugis
Lactarius deliciosus	Saffron milk cap	Commercially harvested	Not necessarily choice, but popular in Russia[41]
Lactarius deterrimus	Orange milkcap[42]	Harvested wild
Lactarius hygrophoroides
Lactarius indigo [43]	Harvested wild
Lactarius paradoxus
Lactarius rubrilacteus [44]	Harvested wild
Lactarius subdulcis	Mild milkcap	Harvested wild	Edible when cooked but not choice[45]
Lactarius volemus	Fishy milkcap	Harvested wild	Granular texture[46]
Laetiporus sulphureus	Sulphur shelf, chicken mushroom	A distinct bracket fungus	Harvested wild
Leccinum aurantiacum	Red-capped scaber stalk	Harvested wild
Leccinum scabrum	Birch bolete	Harvested wild
Leccinum versipelle (syn. Boletus testaceoscaber)	Orange birch bolete	Harvested wild
Lentinula edodes	Shiitake[9]	Commercially cultivated
Lepista saeva (syn. Tricholoma personatum)	Field blewit or blue leg	Must be cooked before eating
Macrolepiota procera	Parasol mushroom	Globally widespread in temperate regions	Harvested wild
Marasmius oreades	Fairy ring champignon	Harvested wild
Morchella spp. including Morchella esculenta	Morels	Can resemble poisonous false morels including Gyromitra esculenta	Open scrub, woodland or open ground in late spring	Commercially harvested; difficult to grow commercially[47]	Potentially toxic if uncooked or consumed with alcohol[48] [49] [50]
Phallus indusiatus	Basket stinkhorn	Commercially cultivated	Asian cuisine[51]
Pleurotus spp.	Oyster mushrooms	Commercially cultivated at an industrial scale[9]
Pleurotus ostreatus	Oyster mushroom	Commercially harvested	Choice[52] but resembles inedible Lentinellus species[53] [54]
Polyporus mylittae	Blackfellow's bread	Harvested wild
Polyporus squamosus	Dryad's saddle and pheasant's back mushroom	Harvested wild
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum	Toothed jelly fungus	Harvested wild
Ramariaceae spp.	Coral fungi	Harvested wild
Rhizopogon luteolus	Harvested wild
Russula laeta	Harvested wild
Sparassis crispa	Cauliflower mushroom	Harvested wild
Stropharia rugosoannulata	Wine cap	Commercially cultivated	Choice[55]
Suillus bovinus	Bovine bolete	Harvested wild
Suillus brevipes	Short-stemmed slippery Jack	Harvested wild
Suillus decipiens	Harvested wild
Suillus granulatus	Weeping bolete, granulated bolete	Harvested wild
Suillus grevillei	Tamarack jack	Harvested wild
Suillus luteus	Slippery jack	Harvested wild
Suillus pictus	Painted suillus	Harvested wild
Suillus tomentosus	Woolly-capped suillus	Harvested wild
Termitomyces	Includes the largest edible mushroom, Termitomyces titanicus , with a cap that averages 1 metre in diameter[56]	Grow out of termite mounds	Commercially harvested,[citation needed ] with cultivation research underway[57]
Tremella fuciformis	White jelly mushroom	Commercially cultivated	Asian sweet dishes for texture[58]
Tricholoma matsutake	Matsutake	Commercially harvested	Prized in Japanese cuisine
Tricholoma portentosum	Harvested wild
Tricholoma terreum	Grey knight	Might cause rhabdomyolysis
Tuber aestivum	Black summer truffle	Commercially harvested
Tuber borchii	Bianchetto truffle	Commercially harvested
Tuber brumale	Muscat truffle	Commercially harvested
Tuber indicum	Chinese black truffle	Commercially harvested
Tuber macrosporum	Smooth black truffle	Commercially harvested
Tuber melanosporum	Black truffle	Southern Europe	Commercially cultivated	Choice
Tuber mesentericum	Bagnoli truffle[59]	Commercially harvested
Ustilago maydis	Corn smut	Pathogens of cereals	Harvested wild	Considered a delicacy in Mexico; used as fillings in quesadillas, tacos and soups[60]
Verpa bohemica	Choice for some sometimes reported as toxic, possibly containing monomethylhydrazine [61]
Volvariella bombycina	Silky rosegill[62]	Commercially cultivated
Volvariella volvacea	Paddy straw mushroom or straw mushroom[62]	Commercially cultivated

Mushroom and truffle production
2023, tonnes

Mushroom cultivation has a long history, with over twenty species commercially cultivated. Mushrooms are cultivated in at least 60 countries.^[64] A fraction of the many fungi consumed by humans are currently cultivated and sold commercially. Commercial cultivation is important ecologically, as there have been concerns of the depletion of larger fungi such as chanterelles in Europe, possibly because the group has grown popular yet remains a challenge to cultivate.^{[citation needed ]} Some mushrooms, particularly mycorrhizal species, have not yet been successfully cultivated.^{[citation needed ]}

In 2023, world production of commercial mushrooms and recorded truffle collection reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization was 50 million tonnes, led by China with 94% of the total (table).

Some wild species are toxic, or at least indigestible, when raw.^[65] Failure to identify poisonous mushrooms and confusing them with edible ones has resulted in death.^{[65] [66] [67]} Although in the 21st century primitive digital applications exist to aid with identification, these are unreliable and some inexperienced hunters relying upon them have been seriously poisoned.^[68]

Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms and responsible for many fatal poisonings include several species of the genus Amanita , particularly A. phalloides (the death cap). Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in some individuals with no prior knowledge of an allergy; old or improperly stored specimens can go rancid quickly and cause food poisoning.^[69] When eating any fungus for the first time, only a small quantity of one species should be consumed at a time, allowing for several hours to identify any potential allergic reaction.^[70] Even normally edible species of mushrooms may be dangerous, as certain mushrooms growing in polluted locations can act as chemical-absorbers, accumulating pollutants and heavy metals, including arsenic and iron, sometimes in lethal concentrations.^[71] On the other hand, some cooking preparations may reduce the toxicity of slightly poisonous mushrooms enough to be consumed as survival food; for example, many prized fungi will cause gastric upset when eaten uncooked, such as Morchella species.^[48]

Additionally, several varieties of fungi are known and documented to contain psychedelic drugs—the so-called magic mushrooms—yet resemble perfectly edible, non-psychoactive species. While not necessarily lethal to consume, to the uninitiated, an accidentally induced psychedelic experience can run the gamut from benign to terrifying, even depressing or psychotic. The most commonly consumed for recreational psychoactive use are Amanita muscaria (the fly agaric) and Psilocybe cubensis , with the former containing alkaloids such as muscimol and the latter predominately psilocybin.^{[citation needed ]} Both have the potential to induce in the user feelings of awe, wonder with nature, interesting visual hallucinations and inner peace (even in mild doses), but excessive or accidental consumption can create feelings of insanity, helplessness and fear, usually persisting for a few hours.^{[citation needed ]}

White mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	117 kJ (28 kcal)
Carbohydrates	5.3 g
Fat	0.5 g
Protein	2.2 g
Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV† Vitamin A equiv. 0% 0 μg Thiamine (B1) 8% 0.1 mg Riboflavin (B2) 23% 0.3 mg Niacin (B3) 28% 4.5 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) 44% 2.2 mg Vitamin B6 6% 0.1 mg Folate (B9) 5% 18 μg Vitamin B12 0% 0 μg Choline 4% 19.9 mg Vitamin D 3% 21 IU Vitamin E 0% 0 mg Vitamin K 0% 0 μg Minerals Quantity %DV† Calcium 0% 6 mg Copper 56% 0.5 mg Iron 9% 1.7 mg Magnesium 3% 12 mg Manganese 4% 0.1 mg Phosphorus 7% 87 mg Potassium 12% 356 mg Selenium 24% 13.4 μg Zinc 8% 0.9 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	91.1 g
Link to Full USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[72] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[73]

Boiled Agaricus mushrooms are 92% water, 3% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 0.3% fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), boiled white Agaricus mushrooms supply 28 calories of food energy and rich contents (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid, copper, and selenium (23-56% DV), with a moderate content of potassium (12% DV, table). Otherwise, raw white mushrooms generally have low amounts of micronutrients (table).

The content of vitamin D is absent or low unless mushrooms are exposed to sunlight or purposely treated with artificial ultraviolet light, even after harvesting and being processed into dry powder.^{[74] [75]}

When exposed to UV light before or after harvest, mushrooms convert their large concentrations of ergosterol into vitamin D₂.^{[74] [75]} This is similar to the reaction in humans, where vitamin D₃ is synthesized after exposure to sunlight.

Testing showed an hour of UV light exposure before harvesting made a serving of mushrooms contain twice the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's daily recommendation of vitamin D. With 5 minutes of artificial UV light exposure after harvesting, a serving of mushrooms contained four times as much.^[74] Analysis also demonstrated that natural sunlight produced vitamin D₂.^[75]

The form of vitamin D found in UV-irradiated mushrooms is ergocalciferol, or vitamin D₂. This is not the same as cholecalciferol, called vitamin D₃, which is produced by UV-irradiation of human or animal skin, fur, and feathers. Although vitamin D₂ has vitamin-D activity in humans, and is widely used in food fortification and nutritional supplements, vitamin D₃ is more commonly used in dairy and cereal products.^{[citation needed ]}

As of 2021^[update] , mushroom consumption has not been shown to conclusively affect risk factors for cardiovascular diseases.^[77]

Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets; those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the truffle, matsutake, and morel) may be collected on a smaller scale by private gatherers and are sometimes available at farmers' markets or other local grocers. Mushrooms can be purchased fresh when in season and many species are also sold dried.

Before assuming that any wild mushroom is edible, it should be correctly identified. Accurate determination of and proper identification of a species is the only safe way to ensure edibility, and the only safeguard against possible poisoning. Some edible species cannot be identified without the use of advanced techniques such as chemistry or microscopy.^{[citation needed ]}

The earliest evidence of consumption of mushrooms comes from 13,000-year-old archaeological sites in Chile.^{[citation needed ]} Ötzi, the mummy of a man who lived between 3400 and 3100 BCE in Europe, was found with two types of mushroom in his belongings.^{[citation needed ]} Ancient Romans and Greeks, particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes. Food tasters were employed by Roman emperors to ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat.^[78] The Forme of Cury , a 14th-century compilation of medieval English recipes, features a recipe of mushrooms and leeks cooked in broth.^[79]

Cooking mushrooms before consumption is often required, both to eliminate mycotoxins including trace levels of toxic hydrazines and also to improve palatability and texture.^[80] Frying, roasting, baking, and microwaving are all used to prepare mushrooms. Cooking lowers the amount of water present in the food. Chitin, a structural polymer in the cell walls of mushrooms, does not break down until 380 °C (716 °F), which is not reached in any normal cooking.^{[81] [82]} However, chitin connections may be broken down by cooking, allowing for easier digestion.^[80]

Mushrooms should be used as soon as possible, even if refrigerated (particularly Coprinus species).^[70] Mushrooms can be frozen, but they freeze best when cooked first.^[83] They can also be canned, dried, pickled, or salted.^[84]

Medicinal mushrooms are mushrooms or extracts from mushrooms that are thought to be treatments for diseases, yet remain unconfirmed in mainstream science and medicine, and so are not approved as drugs or medical treatments.^[85] Such use of mushrooms therefore falls into the domain of traditional medicine ^[86] for which there is no direct high-quality clinical evidence of efficacy.^{[87] [88]} (Since about the mid-20th century, some compounds found in fungi have been developed scientifically for medicine, e.g. antibiotics.)^{[89] [90] [91]}

Preliminary research on mushroom extracts has been conducted to determine if anti-disease properties exist, such as for polysaccharide-K ^[92] or lentinan.^[93] Some extracts have widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as potential adjuvants for radiation treatments and chemotherapy.^{[94] [95]}

Commercially harvested species

• List of foods
• List of Chinese mushrooms and fungi
• Mushroom diet
• Mushroom ketchup
• List of mushroom dishes

• Arora, David (1986). Mushrooms Demystified . Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-0-89815-169-5.
• Davis, R. Michael; Sommer, Robert; Menge, John A. (2012). Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 224–225. ISBN 978-0-520-95360-4. OCLC 797915861.
• Miller Jr., Orson K.; Miller, Hope H. (2006). North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, CN: FalconGuide. ISBN 978-0-7627-3109-1.
• Phillips, Roger (2010). Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55407-651-2.

• Media related to Edible mushrooms at Wikimedia Commons
• "Mushrooms"  . The New Student's Reference Work  . 1914.

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