APA Policy Archive
I. Introduction
The APA Policy Archive contains each policy that has been archived by action of the Council of Representatives, the legislative body of APA with full power and authority over the affairs and funds of the association.
In 1960 the council voted that "All previous actions of Council that are of a continuing nature be repealed except for those statements of policy that are contained by reference in the proposed Rules of Council." Consequently, all policies adopted prior to 1960 are included in this archive.
1956
Council approved the following rule regarding awards:
In any one year an award should be given to not more than one person primarily identified with work in the same specialized topic (such as sensory, socialization, or learning); or with the same specialized material (such as animals, children, or abnormals); or with the same specialized technique (such as projective tests, mathematical models, physiological analysis); or with the same particular application (such as educational, industrial, clinical).
1965
Council voted that a biographical statement on each candidate accompany ballots for the president-elect of APA.
Note: The Guidelines for the Conduct of President-Elect Nominations and Elections provides that the candidates' statement accompanying the ballot be confined to discussions of issues facing psychology and should not exceed 1,000 words. Additionally, the APA Monitor on Psychology provides coverage of the candidates in a question and answer format.
1975
Council approved a motion that the Council apportionment ballot be revised to show individual state or division votes for coalitions; coalitions would be indicated, but votes for each unit of a coalition would then be known.
1977
1. The nomination process shall begin in December so that standing boards and committees have access to the recommendations for nominees from the Council of Representatives, divisions, state associations, and the APA Monitor solicitation when preparing slates of recommendations for the Board of Directors. All recommendations from all sources would also be included in the summary book of recommendations prepared for the Board Subcommittee on Nominations, as is presently done.
2. Each standing board and committee shall submit a slate of candidates equal to the number to appear on the ballots, plus an equal number of alternates.
3. All recommended candidates shall be rank ordered and a rationale provided for each one.
4. Boards or committees that prepare separate slates for each position shall provide the reasons for doing so.
5. The phrase "call for nominations" shall be replaced by he phrase "call for recommended candidates for election to boards and committees."
1990
Policy regarding council representatives seeking positions on APA boards and committees
That Council members be encouraged to seek nomination to boards and committees. The nomination process would be one of the topics covered at the Committee on Structure and Function of Council sponsored orientation for new Council members. Shortly after their election, Council representatives will be sent a letter encouraging them to participate in the nomination process for boards and committees along with information on the election process for boards and committees.
1991
Council voted to change the word limit for APA President-elect candidate's statements in the APA Monitor from 2,500 words to 1,000 words.
Note: The Guidelines for the Conduct of President-Elect Nominations and Elections provides that the candidates' statement accompanying the ballot be confined to discussions of issues facing psychology and should not exceed 1,000 words. Additionally, the APA Monitor on Psychology provides coverage of the candidates in a question and answer format.
1992
Council voted to approve a motion providing that in cases of coalitions designated on the Apportionment Ballot, the calculation of votes be based on the percentage total for the coalition cumulatively rather than for each state and division individually within the coalition, and that only after the total percentage for the coalition is calculated will the percentage be rounded. This process was initiated with the tabulation of the Apportionment Ballot for the 1993 legislative year.
1993
Council considered a motion proposing that for coalitions on the Apportionment Ballot, results be determined based on the total vote allocations for all members of the coalition rather than on the percent of total votes received by, and rounded for, each individual coalition member. On the recommendation of the Board of Directors and the Committee on Structure and Function of Council voted to approve the following, substitute motion, as amended:
That in cases of coalitions designated on the Apportionment Ballot, the calculation of votes be based on the percentage total for the coalition cumulatively rather than for each state and division individually within the coalition. That only after the total percentage for the coalition is calculated will the percentage be rounded. This process will be initiated with the tabulation of the Apportionment Ballot for the 1993 legislative year.
1994
Required endorsement dropped from the student application process
Council approved dropping the requirement that student affiliate applications be endorsed by a member of the Association.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: New rules have replaced this policy.
Required application fee dropped and expanded dues phase-in goes from 3 to 4 years
Council approved dropping the requirement that an application for membership be accompanied by an application fee and expanding the three-year phase-in of APA dues to a four-year phase in, as follows: first-year members dues set annually by the Membership Committee, usually between 25% to 30% of regular member dues; second-year member dues at 50% of regular member dues; third year members dues at 70% of regular member dues; and fourth-year members dues at 90% of regular member dues.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: New rules have replaced this policy.
1996
Council voted to reimburse any of the five presidential candidates, who are not members of the current Council and who are not otherwise reimbursed for travel and expenses, up to 1,000ドル in accordance with APA policy to attend the Plenary Session at the February meeting of the Council of Representatives.
Note: In February 1999, Council voted to approve the following motion regarding reimbursement for presidential candidates to attend the plenary sessions of Council: That presidential candidates, who are not members of the current Council of Representatives, no longer be reimbursed for attending the plenary sessions of Council.
Dual membership proposal
WHEREAS Council has received with concern data related to the declining rates of membership in the Association's science/academic constituency, and
WHEREAS Psychology can only survive through a recognition of the mutual interdependence of science and practice, and
WHEREAS Psychology's credibility with policy members as a health service profession would be significantly reduced by the weakening of its alliance with the science of psychology, and
WHEREAS APA is not the primary membership organization for many scientific psychologists, and
WHEREAS the dual membership dues proposal advanced by BSA and supported by the Board of Directors may be only one possible response to a growing problem, and
WHEREAS additional study and data are needed to determine how the proposed intervention needs to be implemented and what additional interventions may be required to achieved the desired result,
COUNCIL THEREFORE:
Approves a special dues arrangement for APA members who also are members of the American Psychological Society (APS) or a member of any one of the organizations that are part of the Federation of Behavioral, Psychological, and Cognitive Sciences. APA would limit this offer to one society for a scientist/academic APA member. Dual APA/APS or Federation members would have their APA dues reduced by 25%. Those organizations would be encouraged to give a reciprocal dues reduction.
Will review the implementation of this action at its August meeting.
Allocates 6,000ドル from its 1996 contingency fund to appoint a 6 person Task Force to review data already accumulated about the extent and causes of the problem to plan and to recommend possible additional interventions, and to report to Council implementation plans at its August meeting.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: New rules have replaced this policy.
2000
Policy urging boards and committees to develop strategies to get new people involved in governance
Council voted to direct all directorates and governance groups to identify strategies specific to that directorate or governance group and implement appropriate mechanisms that will provide opportunities for newcomers (those who have not previously served on the Council of Representatives or a board or committee, with exception of APAGS) to participate in governance. One of these mechanisms might be to propose a slate comprised solely of members who haven’t previously served on the Council of Representatives or board or committee, with the exception of APAGS.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: At its August 2014 meeting, Council approved the following motion: Council supports the inclusion on boards and committees of psychologists who have not previously served on a board, committee, or Council, and Therefore requests that board and committee election slates include an asterisk (*) by each nominee (with the nominee’s permission) who has not previously served on a board, committee or Council. An evaluation will be done 3 years after implementation (2017) to determine the effectiveness of these procedures.
2004
A three-year trial (2005-2007) in which ethnic minority representatives will be reimbursed for their expenses associated with attending Council
Because it believes that racial and ethnic diversity in the membership of Council has not been and is not currently satisfactory, Council finds that a program to provide incentives to Divisions and State, Provincial and Territorial Associations to elect ethnic minorities as Council representatives is in the best interest of APA.
Accordingly APA will reimburse any Division or State/Provincial/Territorial Psychological Association for the expenses incurred by representatives to Council who are ethnic minorities and who are elected during the years 2005-2007, to attend Council meetings. Reimbursement will be provided to Divisions, State, Provincial and Territorial Psychological Associations for transportation, hotel and meal expenses for both the February and August meetings of Council. APA strongly encourages Divisions and State, Provincial and Territorial Associations to submit one or more slates of nominees comprised solely of ethnic minorities.
For purposes of this program, ethnic minority identity is determined by self-identification as a member of one of the following four U.S. ethnic minority groups: African American/Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian American/Pacific Islander, and Hispanic / Latino.
Council requests that the Board conduct a review of the effectiveness of this proposal and provide a recommendation to Council in August 2007 regarding funding its continuance beyond the 2007 election.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: APA now reimburses all members of Council for their expenses related to attending Council meetings.
2010
The Membership Board's charge was extended to include recruitment and retention activities (originally approved in 1992)
Council approved having the Membership Board oversee Association membership retention and recruitment activities and make annual reports on these activities to Council.
Collection of information about the representation of women, ethnic minorities, gay men, lesbians and bisexuals, transgender individuals, and individuals with disabilities in APA governance
Collection of Information about the Representation of Women, Ethnic Minorities, Gay Men, Lesbians and Bisexuals, Transgender Individuals and Individuals with Disabilities in APA Governance: That staff is directed to 1) annually collect and disseminate information on the number of women, ethnic minorities, gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, transgender individuals and individuals with disabilities serving on Council and boards and committees; 2) at least every five years, collect and disseminate information on the number of women, ethnic minorities, gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, transgender individuals and individuals with disabilities who have been nominated to boards and committees and/or put on a board/committee election slate and to nominees on the Council of Representatives election ballot. The information will be collected by mailing a survey requesting voluntary self disclosure regarding gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and disability status from board/committee members and Council members (annually) and board/committee nominees and members running for Council (at least every five years). The results of the survey will be disseminated to APA governance groups and will be used in determining whether further action to increase diversity is warranted based on the results and, if so, at what point in the nomination/election process diversity issues may need to be most vigorously addressed.
Council requested that the APA Research Office be involved in the development of the survey and analyzation of the data.
1978
Psychological Treatment as part of the professional preparation of a psychologist
Where psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, or other forms of psychological treatment or behavior modification are undertaken as a required or credited part of the professional preparation of a psychologist, the cost of such training should not be charged against a health plan by either the trainee or a psychologist/therapist, but where a psychologist or trainee may have a recognized mental disorder and seek professional assistance, the therapy should not be claimed as professional training and should be a reimbursable expense within the limits of the individual's health plan.
1992
Council voted to adopt the March 11, 1992, draft of the APA ethics code, subject to amendments adopted at the August 1992 meeting of Council. Council authorized the Ethics Revision Comments Subcommittee to make any necessary technical changes, not substantive in nature, to incorporate the amendments passed by Council into the code.
Note: Council approved a new version of the Ethics Code in August 2002.
2006
2006 Resolution Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, and Degrading Treatment or Punishmentopens in new window (PDF, 162KB)
2013
2000
Resolution to Endorse a Comprehensive Mission of the National Institute of Mental Health
To endorse the necessity and appropriateness of a comprehensive research portfolio including behavioral research at the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), to be inclusive of research to help understand, treat and prevent mental illness and to further knowledge about the promotion and maintenance of mental health, and the study of psychological, social and legal factors that influence behavior.
WHEREAS behavioral research funded by the NIMH was recently attacked by a Stanley Foundation report as money misspent: "The funding by NIMH of diverse behavioral and social science research projects unrelated to severe mental illnesses effectively shifts funds originally allocated for research on severe mental illnesses to other purposes."
WHEREAS NIMH-funded basic research with nonhuman animals has proven vitally important in understanding mental disorders, including depression: major advances in understanding, preventing, and treating depression can be traced to NIMH-funded work on fear conditioning in dogs conducted by Overmier and Seligman beginning in the late 1960s; from this, "learned helplessness" emerged and progressed to seminal work on the biochemical (Weiss, Anisman) and cognitive (Alloy & Abramson) bases of depression and from there into Seligman's current research on optimism and the prevention of depression during childhood;
WHEREAS basic research on prairie voles was criticized as irrelevant to NIMH’s mission (Stanley Foundation report), when in fact the vole model is important for studying social bonding and stranger identification at multiple levels of analysis (including evolutionary, genetic, neuroendocrinological, behavioral and social). Successful social bonding buffers against anxiety, while stranger identification may provoke anxiety and aggression;
WHEREAS, contrary to implications in the Stanley Foundation report, the empirical relationship between childhood peer rejection and subsequent mental illness is clear (Coie et al, 1995; Williams & Gilmour, 1994) and is an appropriate and necessary subject for research in the NIMH;
WHEREAS over five million Americans suffer from severe mental disorders including schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, manic-depressive illness (bipolar disorder), major depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and panic disorder; and nineteen million adult Americans suffer from depression (NIMH Depression Fact Sheet). According to the NIMH, an estimated 30ドル.4 billion was lost to the direct and indirect costs of depression in 1990.
Furthermore, "diagnosing and treating children and adolescents with depression is critical to prevent impairment in academic, social, emotional, and behavioral functioning and to allow children to live up to their full potential," (NIMH Depression Fact Sheet); WHEREAS sources of human resilience—such as courage, hope, optimism, and the capacity for joy or future mindedness—may well serve as buffers against depression and other mental disorders (Seligman, 1998) and that line of research should be encouraged by NIMH;
WHEREAS, contrary to the groundless assertion in the Stanley Foundation report that NIMH’s original mission pointed to severe mental illnesses, and away from promoting mental health, the Public Health Service Act (Report 102-546) provides a clear picture of congressional intent regarding NIMH’s mission: "The research program established under this subpart shall include support for biomedical and behavioral neuroscience and shall be designed to further the treatment and prevention of mental illness, the promotion of mental health, and the study of psychological, social, and legal factors that influence behavior;"
WHEREAS behavioral research is critical to achieving congressional intent regarding the NIMH mission;
WHEREAS HIV/AIDS research fits within the intended congressional mission of NIMH. The NIMH primary prevention/intervention portfolio has produced interventions useful in preventing HIV in many populations at highest risk for the sexual transmission of HIV, including the homeless and mentally ill (NIH AIDS Research Program Evaluation). This research has improved our understanding of, and interventions related to, perceptions of risk, resilience to risk, self-efficacy and health promoting behaviors, and the sexual risk behavior of the mentally ill;
WHEREAS if NIMH were to limit its mission and fund research primarily on serious and persistent mental illnesses, scientific progress to treat and understand other mental disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, and the most common forms of depression, would be severely compromised. Likewise scientific progress to prevent youth violence and suicide, to address depression in the elderly, and to understand behavior change, the only current means of preventing the spread of HIV infection, would be seriously stifled;
THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association Board of Directors supports a comprehensive research portfolio at the National Institute of Mental Health. APA should work to ensure a balanced program of grant funding in mental health and mental illness, including basic and applied behavioral research at NIMH. APA should work to reject any call to limit the mission of NIMH to research on serious and persistent mental illnesses.
References
ADAMHA Reorganization Act, conference report 102-546, June 3, 1992, U.S. House of Representatives
Alloy, L. B. & Abramson, L. (1979). Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser? Journal of Experimental Psychology, 108 (4), 441-485.
Anisman, H. & Zacharko, R. (1982). Depression: The predisposing influence of stress. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 5 (4), 89-137.
Cole, J., Terry, R., Lenox, K. & Lochman, J. (1995). Childhood peer rejection and aggression as predictors of stable patterns of adolescent disorder. Development & Psychopathology ,7, (4), 697-713.
NIH AIDS Research Program Evaluation: Behavioral, Social Science, and Prevention Research Area Review Panel: Findings and Recommendations (1996).
National Institute of Mental Health, Office of Communications and Public Liaison (April 13, 1999). Depression Research at the National Institute of Mental Health: Fact Sheet.
National Institute of Mental Health, Office of Communications and Public Liaison (Dec 7, 1999). Statement on the report released on December 6, 1999, by the National Alliance for the Mentally Ill and the Stanley Foundation Research Program.
National Institute of Mental Health, Office of Science Policy and Program Planning (1998).
Seligman, M.E.P. National Press Club, September 3, 1998.
Seligman, M.E.P, Reivich, K., Jaycox, L. & Gillham, Jane. (1995). The optimistic child. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Stanley Foundation, "The Failure of the National Institute of Mental Health To Do Sufficient Research on Severe Mental Illnesses," December 6, 1999.
Weiss, J., Glazer, H., Pohorecky, L. (1974). Neurotransmitters and helplessness: A chemical bridge to depression? Psychology Today, 8, (7), 58-62.
Williams, B. & Gilmour, J. (1994). Sociometry and peer relationships. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 35, (6), 997-1013.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Out of date, as recommended by the Board of Scientific Affairs.
2004
Council shall review and update its list of priorities at least every 3 years; 2) the Committee on Structure and Function of Council will recommend to Council a process for developing, reviewing and updating these priorities; 4) the latest list of the top priorities shall be included in each year’s Council agenda book; 5) new business item forms will include the list of these priorities so that the maker of a motion may identify the applicable priority/priorities to which the item is addressed or specify other issues to which it is speaking.
2006
Linking Directorate activities with APA priorities
At least on an annual basis, each Directorate include within their report to Council an account of their activities and actions for each of the current top 10 APA priorities, as identified from the current priority list developed by Council with the assistance of CSFC and relevant divisions.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Out of date, Council priorities were replaced by the APA Strategic Plan.
2003
Note: Principles for the validation and use of personnel selection procedures, 4th edition were automatically sunset on Dec. 31, 2017. The fifth edition will be released in 2018.
1970
Policy providing that annual reports from the Treasurer, Recording Secretary, and Executive Officer be in written form
Council approved a recommendation from the Board of Directors that the reports given annually by the Treasurer, Recording Secretary, and Executive Officer be in written form.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Out of date.
1985
Policy prohibiting smoking in the Council room when Council is in session
On the recommendation of the Committee on Structure and Function of Council, Council voted to prohibit smoking in the Council meeting room when Council is in session.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Out of date — smoking is no longer allowed in hotel meeting spaces.
1990
Policy that mandates the Committee on Structure and Function of Council to hold a debriefing session for outgoing representatives
Council voted to instruct the Committee on Structure and Function of Council to schedule a debriefing meeting of all Council members whose terms are expiring and to hold such a session at each August meeting.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: CSFC was sunset and in-person debriefings have not been held for several years due to poor attendance.
1992
Council reviewed several proposals for reinstating the Council break-out groups and voted to adopt the following substitute motion proposed by the Board of Directors:
"At the discretion of the President, in consultation with the Board of Directors, break-out groups may be scheduled but should not be made routine procedure."
Note: New policies for breakouts groups were approved in 2004.
1993
On the recommendation of the Board of Directors and the Committee on Structure and Function of Council, Council voted to have each APA directorate provide a written report twice annually of its major issues and activities for inclusion as discussion items in the Council of Representatives agendas and to have the executive directors of the directorates present at Council meetings to answer any questions Council members may have about the reports.
Note: The current practice is for the executive directors of the directorates to submit written reports at the time of each Council meeting. The reports are called "Central Office Reports to Council" and they are posted on the governance website, with a notification to Council regarding their posting.
1994
Policy on seating/space at Council meetings
Staff was instructed whenever possible to make available at all future Council meetings seating and work tables of no less than three linear feet (one meter) per person.
1996
The current method of selecting and seating regular Council members will remain unchanged; and
The APA will provide expense reimbursement for all traditionally elected and seated council members as at present, and on the same basis for one liaison/observer from any division or state not directly represented on Council (as a division, state or coalition representative);
The APA President be encouraged to give liaison/observers the same opportunity to speak on the floor of Council as regularly seated members;
This proposal will remain in force for a maximum of two years from August 1995. During this period the Committee on Structure and Function of council will evaluate the effects of the participation of the liaison/observers.
1997
Council also voted to approve the following resolution regarding increasing ethnic minority representation on Council and requested that it be included with the Bylaw ballot and Monitor article regarding the proposed Bylaw changes:
Opportunity for Council to Increase Ethnic Minority Representation
WHEREAS Council has acknowledged the under representation of ethnic minority persons among the representatives of Council;
WHEREAS The just passed resolution on allocation of seats on the Council of Representatives creates an opportunity to further diversify the representation on Council; and
WHEREAS The Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs (CEMA) recommended to the Task Force that some of the new seats in the "Wild Card" plan be used to increase the diversity of Council;
THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED
It is the sense of Council that the change in allocation of seats on the Council offers divisions and state and provincial associations an unprecedented opportunity to effect change. To that end, Council recommends: (a) that those previously unrepresented state and provincial psychological associations and divisions that receive a seat to be encouraged to fill the seat with an ethnic minority person, and (b) those state and provincial psychological associations and divisions with existing seats be encouraged to fill the additional seat with an ethnic minority representative.
Note: Current policy reimburses those divisions and state/provincial/territorial associations for expenses incurred by representatives who are ethnic minorities for their attendance at the February and August Council meetings. This policy was adopted by Council in August 2001 and covered ethnic minority representatives serving through 2004. In July 2004, Council extended the policy to cover ethnic minority representatives serving through 2007.
2008
Mission statement for APA
The mission of the APA is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: Council approved a new Strategic Plan in February 2019 which replaces the 2008 mission statement.
2009
APA Goals and Objectives
Goal 1: Maximize Organizational Effectiveness
Objectives
The APA's structures and systems support the organization's strategic direction, growth and success.
a. Enhance APA programs, services and communications to increase member engagement and value;
b. Ensure the ongoing financial health of the organization;
c. Optimize APA's governance structures and function;
d. Ensure that APA collects, maintains and manages accessible member and professional data to allow for evidence-based decision-making. (Added by Council of Representatives in 2015.)
Goal 2: Expand Psychology's Role in Advancing Health
Objectives
Key stakeholders realize the unique benefits psychology provides to health and wellness and the discipline becomes more fully incorporated into health research and delivery systems.
a. Advocate for the inclusion of access to psychological services in health care reform policies
b. Create innovative tools to allow psychologists to enhance their knowledge of health promotion, disease prevention, and management of chronic disease;
c. Educate other health professionals and the public about psychology's role in health;
d. Advocate for funding and policies that support psychology's role in health;
e. Promote psychology's role in decreasing health disparities;
f. Promote the application of psychological knowledge for improving overall health and wellness at the individual, organizational, and community levels.
Goal 3: Increase Recognition of Psychology as a Science
Objectives
The APA's central role in positioning psychology as the science of behavior leads to increased public awareness of the benefits psychology brings to daily living.
a. Enhance psychology's prominence as a core STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) discipline;
b. Improve public understanding of the scientific basis for psychology;
c. Expand the translation of psychological science to evidence-based practice;
d. Promote the applications of psychological science to daily living;
e. Expand educational resources and opportunities in psychological science.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: Council approved a new Strategic Plan in February 2019 which replaces the 2009 goals and objectives.
APA Vision Statement
The American Psychological Association aspires to excel as a valuable, effective and influential organization advancing psychology as a science, serving as:
- A uniting force for the discipline;
- The major catalyst for the stimulation, growth and dissemination of psychological science and practice;
- The primary resource for all psychologists;
- The premier innovator in the education, development, and training of psychological scientists, practitioners and educators;
- The leading advocate for psychological knowledge and practice informing policy makers and the public to improve public policy and daily living;
- A principal leader and global partner promoting psychological knowledge and methods to facilitate the resolution of personal, societal and global challenges in diverse, multicultural and international contexts; and
- An effective champion of the application of psychology to promote human rights, health, well being and dignity
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: Council approved a new Strategic Plan in February 2019 which replaces the 2009 vision statement.
2010
APA Core Values
The American Psychological Association commits to its vision through a mission based upon the following values:
- Continual Pursuit of Excellence
- Knowledge and Its Application Based upon Methods of Science
- Outstanding Service to Its Members and to Society
- Social Justice, Diversity, and Inclusion
- Ethical Action in All That We Do
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: Council approved a new Strategic Plan in February 2019 which replaces the 2010 core values.
1949
Management of the Association's Journals
(a) The Association should consider itself obligated to ensure the opportunity for publication in every major area of the field of psychology.
(b) It is unnecessary and undesirable, however, that all publication outlets be controlled by the Association.
(c) As long as any subdivision of the general field is adequately represented by an independent journal, the Association should not attempt to take over or duplicate the functions of this vehicle.
(d) While all major areas of psychology should be represented within the Association's program or outside of it, the Association is not obligated to provide means for publishing the total output of the membership.
1970
The Psychological Bulletin publishes evaluative reviews of the research literature in psychology. It includes reviews and interpretations of substantive and methodological issues. This journal publishes reports of original research only when these reports are used to illustrate some methodological problem or issue. Methodological issues discussed in the journal should be aimed at the solution of some particular research problem in psychology, but these issues should be of sufficient breadth of interest a wide readership among psychologists. Articles of a more specialized nature should appear in the various statistical, psychometric, and methodological journals. This journal does not publish original theoretical articles. Such articles should be submitted to the Psychological Review.
1977
Council voted that a child care facility be provided as a regular convention service, with APA's paying the unavoidable costs, but that no hourly fees be charged to students registered at the convention or to other convention registrants with annual family incomes under 10,000ドル. (Hourly rates for others will be according to a sliding scale based on annual family income.)
Note: The discontinuation of a child care facility was approved when Council "voted to approve a package of recommended changes as part of the 1999 Preliminary Budget." during its August 13 and 16, 1998 meeting.
1990
Council voted to approve the following resolution concerning student attendance at the convention:
"That the Board of Convention Affairs develop procedures to reduce expenses for students to attend the APA annual meeting. These procedures should include but not be limited to:
1. procurement of low-cost housing (e.g., university dormitories, hotels, Y's etc.)
2. procurement of low-cost meals (e.g., package housing and meal arrangements through universities, hotels, Y's, etc.)
3. procurement of low-cost transportation packages including bus, train, and air specifically for students."
Note: Since its establishment as a continuing committee, which focuses specifically on student affairs, APAGS has taken on the responsibility of providing cost-saving information to students interested in attending the APA convention.
1992
Policy on scheduling dates of the annual convention
Council approved having the dates for the annual convention remain as presently defined by the Board of Convention Affairs from the second Thursday in August to the following Sunday.
1954
It is the responsibility of any university offering a doctoral program designed to prepare students to assume professional psychological duties to arrange that each doctoral candidate in clinical or counseling will receive adequate supervised practical experience as an integral part of that program. At the present time the E&T Board adopts the following accreditation standards as desirable for the implementation of this principle.
1. A supervised predoctoral internship of not less than one academic year preceded by one or more clerkships.
2. A continuing contact between the university and the interning agency during the doctoral candidate's intern period.
Note: This policy has been superseded by the Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation of Programs in Professional Psychology, which was adopted by Council in August 1995, amended February 1999.
In every case in which a graduate assistantship, scholarship, or fellowship for the next academic year is offered to an actual or prospective graduate student, the student, if he indicates his acceptance before April 15, will still have complete freedom through April 15 to reconsider his acceptance and to accept another fellowship, scholarship, or graduate assistantship. He has committed himself, however, not to resign an appointment after this date unless he is formally released from it.
Note: The language of the policy is outdated and policy is superseded by policies instituted by COGDOP and the Council of Graduate Schools, which are published in APA’s publication, Graduate Study in Psychology.
1961
Although the full year internship in a clinical facility is still considered to be the preferred pattern in most doctoral programs in clinical psychology, a number of universities are experimenting with patterns of part time practicum experience in a variety of settings, spread over two or more years. The Education and Training Board recommends that fund granting agencies supporting graduate programs adapt their award stipends to facilitate such experimentation in practicum training.
Note: Language was determined to be out-of-date.
1971
Policy on improving the teaching of psychology at the precollege level
Steps should be taken under APA auspices to accomplish the following goals for improving the teaching of psychology at the precollege levels:
a) development and continuing revision of psychological curricula for elementary and secondary school levels in cooperation with other behavioral, biological, and social science disciplines, as appropriate;
b) collaboration with other behavioral, biological, and social science disciplines to assess the value and determine the feasibility of an interdisciplinary approach to teaching about the behavior and nature of man;
c) development and continuing revision of guidelines for the training of teachers to use the products of curricular development efforts.
Further, APA should support the establishment of a clearinghouse of information on precollege psychology and the development of means to disseminate such information.
Steps should be taken under APA auspices to accomplish the following goals for improving the educational process:
a) encouragement of closer cooperation among psychologists in research related to the educational process in the translation of present knowledge into education related action;
b) improvement of procedures for dissemination of these results to educational administrators, teachers, future teachers, and others who may find them useful, this improvement to be manifested in part by changes in our undergraduate programs.
Further, APA should take official steps to reaffirm its belief that the role of the teacher is a crucial and significant one in society, such steps to include systematic efforts to support and improve teacher education in general.
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: Policy is out of date and has been replaced with a new policy.
1978
The procedures and criteria of the Committee on Accreditation of the American Psychological Association require nondiscrimination with respect to religious orientation in faculty hiring and admission of students as a condition of program approval. In the application of this general principle, exceptions with respect to religion may be made in the case of institutions controlled by religious groups, provided that any preferences in student admissions or faculty hiring on religious grounds are explicit and publicly stated.
When an institution meets the requirements for such an exception, the accrediting body should formally record its opinion on whether and in what specific ways training provided by the institution is deficient because of its religious proscriptions and shall refuse accreditation if these deficiencies are judged to be substantial and severe.
Note: Amended in 1980.
1979
It is the sense of APA Council that APA accreditation reflect our concern that all psychology departments and schools should assure that their students receive preparation to function in a multi cultural, multi racial society. This implies having systematic exposure to and contact with a diversity of students, teachers, and patients or clients, such as, for example, by special arrangement for interchange or contact with other institutions on a regular and organized basis.
Note: This policy has been superseded by the Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation of Programs in Professional Psychology, which was adopted by Council in August 1995, amended February 1999.
It is the intent of the resolution that students in part time programs will be required to meet education and training requirements consistent with APA accreditation criteria and Standards for Providers of Psychological Services.
Note: This policy has been superseded by the Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation of Programs in Professional Psychology, which was adopted by Council in August 1995, amended February 1999.
1980
The procedures and criteria of the Committee on Accreditation of the American Psychological Association require nondiscrimination with respect to religious orientation in faculty hiring and admission of students as a condition of program approval. In the application of this general principle, however, exceptions with respect to religion may be made in the case of institutions controlled by religious groups, providing that any preferences in student admissions or faculty hiring on religious grounds are explicit and publicly stated.
When an institution applies for an exception, said institution shall document the procedures by which it ensures that the practice of discrimination in the selection of faculty and students and/or the required allegiance to a creedal oath does not adversely affect currently accepted principles of academic freedom, faculty and student rights, and quality of training, teaching, and research. Such documentation shall incorporate procedures for due process and should demonstrate sensitivity to individual rights.
Note: This policy has been superseded by the Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation of Programs in Professional Psychology, which was adopted by Council in August 1995, amended February 1999.
1981
Psychology is a broadly diverse field that has been rcognized as a scientific discipline since the 1870s. Its content ranges from social science topics akin to sociology and anthropology to natural science foci related to biology and physiology. The thread uniting the filed has two strands: a concern with behavior and reliance on empirical and evidential methods.
Accordingly, all secondary school teachers of psychology should have a firm and broad grounding of the empirically based principles of behavior and a thorough grasp of the evidential approach to the study of behavior. Appropriate preparation for secondary school teachers of psychology is a plan of study offered at an accredited college or university. Because those seeking certification as secondary school teachers of psychology may have followed different educational paths, alternative plans to obtain certification in this area are proposed.
Recommended Courses of Study Leading to Certification
Plan A
This plan would consist of a coherent set of courses that provides systematic study in the areas* of general psycholog, experimental psychology, social psychologiy, physiological psychology, personality, and history of psychology. It would also include courses on methods of invetigation that focus on research design, statistics, and assessment and evaluation of the individual. Students who have successfully completed such a set of courses would have adequate depth and breadth of training in psychology to permit them to function as competent teachers of psychology at the secondary school level.
* It is not the intent of the APA to recommend specific courses carrying these titles. Rather, these guidelines are designed to assist teacher training institutions and state certification agencies in identifying areas of study that will give secondary school psychology teachers a thorough and broad preparation in with the content and the methods of psychology.
Plan B
In recent years, colleges and universities have experimented with curriculum designs that differ from the more traditional approach to Plan A. An alternative route to certification must be provided for students in these programs, who by virtue of different course titles, interdepartmental courses, and the like, would not have the same areas of study. These candidates should qualify for certification, provided they show training equivalent to Plan A on an area-by-area basis.
Plan C
Candidates who do not qualify under Plans A and B may be certified by demonstration of competence and knowledge equivalent to that indicated in Plan A as appraised through a specific plan such as the following: (a) examination arranged through a psychology department of an accredited college or university or (b) standardized test in psychology (e.g., GRE Advanced test in Psychology) passed at a level acceptable to the psychology department of an accredited college or university.
Comment
These guidelines offer a model plan of study that is likely to provide candidates for certification with sufficient knowledge of psychology to teach in the secondary school. They also signal that a haphazard collection of introductory psychology, psychological foundations of education, mental health, and social studies methods courses does not in itself assure sufficient depth and breadth of background for a secondary school teacher of psychology.
Because student interest tends to be high in areas such as psychopathology, developmental psychology, and counseling psychology, secondary school teachers of psychology should be urged to seek additional study in these areas, but primary concern, and certification requirements, should remain focused on the basic content and methods of the field. Additional courses in such areas as psychopathology, developmental psychology, and counseling psychology will not necessarily give the teacher any technical competence to function as a professional psychological counselor to students, other teachers, or parents. Persons with the training outlined in Plan A (or its equivalent) would be competent only as classroom teachers dealing with the subject matter of psychology.
All secondary school teachers, regardless of their field need courses in areas of study that will help them be sensitive to the needs of adolescents. These courses should be considered part of the professional preparation of all teachers and not part of the specialty training of secondary school teachers of psychology.
There are many different way to organize the content of secondary school psychology courses. For example, some experts recommend presenting psychology as a subject-matter field, much like biology, physics, or anthropology. Others, with equally compelling reasons, would organize the course content around concepts of human development, particularly adolescent psychology. Both foci represent appropriate ways of presenting the subject matter of the field, depending on the needs of the particular school and curriculum in which the course will be offered. These and other options make it difficult to set specific guidelines for the classification of psychology in the secondary school as a social science, natural science or behavioral science. Teacher trainers and certification officers should be guided in decisions about classification by consultation with appropriate groups, such as faculty of psychology departments at colleges and universities in the state. Regardless of the classification, however, all secondary school teachers of psychology should have a thorough and broad preparation in both the content and the methods of psychology.
The American Psychological Association endorses the idea that a well-constructed methods course in the candidate’s intended teaching field is a necessary part of the professional preparation of secondary school teachers. The course should prepare teachers to set forth clear educational objectives for students and identify appropriate teaching methods to attain these objectives.
Recommended for Implementation
Although there are currently many thousands of secondary school teachers of psychology, relatively few of them teach psychology full-time because the demand for fill-time psychology teachers is small, and it may well remain small for some years to come. Thus, training and certification in psychology alone is not realistic or practical in most cases. However, the American Psychological Association wishes to recommend the following to Secondary School State Certification Boards in order to implement Plans A, B, or C as described in these guidelines:
Regardless of the field in which a teacher is certified (e.g., social/behavioral sciences or natural sciences), a separate endorsement with specific requirements in psychology should be added to the existing certificate.
Under this recommendation, secondary school teachers of psychology would be fully prepared and certified to teach some other specialty as well psychology.
In addition, these guidelines are intended to apply to the training and certification of any teacher of psychology in any secondary school, with regard to the fraction of time spent teaching psychology.
1984
Council urges APA members who owe debts on educational loans to recognize their moral obligation to repay these loans in a timely fashion.
Note: A valid policy, but nonetheless not needed in the Council Policy Manual.
1985
In compliance with the Provisions of Recognition and Guidelines on Interagency Cooperation on Accreditation set forth by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation (COPA), the American Psychological Association hereby authorizes its Committee on Accreditation to cooperate as feasible with other COPA-recognized accrediting agencies in the conduct of on-site evaluations, when invited to do so by the host institution and when participating accrediting agencies have substantive interests in common.
Note: This policy has been superseded by Policies for Accreditation Governance, which was adopted by Council in August 1991, amended February 1996.
Policy on undergraduate curriculum in psychology
The four year baccalaureate program in psychology is fundamentally a liberal arts curriculum. Neither vocational nor preprofessional training should be a primary goal of undergraduate education in psychology. This position is consistent with the finding of the 1961 Michigan Conference, chaired by W.J. McKeachie and John E. Milholland, which concluded that 'a basically liberal arts curriculum is best for students who plan to go on to professional training, to graduate work in psychology, or directly into a vocation.' The American Psychological Association should not prescribe specific course requirements for the undergraduate major in psychology. Such an action would seriously intrude upon the academic freedom of departments and faculty members.
However, it is agreed that APA should continue to monitor undergraduate education in psychology by means of periodic surveys. By this means APA and its Committee on undergraduate Education in Psychology can continue to weigh the possibility of developing guidelines or models for the curriculum.
1986
Guidelines for conditions of employment for psychologists
Guidelines for Conditions of Employment for Psychologistsopens in new window (PDF, 249KB)
Principles of good practice in continuing education
Principles of Good Practice in Continuing Educationopens in new window (PDF, 1.4MB)
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: Policy is out of date and has been replaced with a new policy.
1988
Council voted to reaffirm the APA policy concerning halftime internships listed in the APA Criteria for Accreditation. Council also voted to approve the following resolution:
Many graduate school students and professional school students who are new parents or who must work part time require greater flexibility from internship centers.
APA encourages internship centers to adapt their programs to the changing needs of selected students and not to discriminate against them; APA encourages internship centers to give consideration to these special cases.
Note: This policy has been superseded by the Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation of Programs in Professional Psychology, which was adopted by Council in August 1995, amended February 1999.
1989
Council voted to adopt the "Memorandum of Understanding between APA and the Canadian Psychological Association for Concurrent Accreditation of Doctoral Training Programs and Predoctoral Internship Training Programs in Professional Psychology" as a policy document for APA.
Note: This policy has been superseded by the APA/CPA Memorandum of Understanding, which was adopted by Council in August 2002.
1990
Council voted to approve the revised APA "Accreditation Procedures". This action brings the APA Accreditation Procedures into compliance with the policies and procedures of the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation.
Note: This policy has been superseded by the Accreditation Operating Procedures, which was adopted by Council in August 1995, amended February 1999.
Resolved, that the criteria and procedures for APA approval of sponsors of continuing education for psychologists be revised to permit credit for programs of one hour or more in duration. This change shall be effective upon passage.
Note: This policy has been superseded by the Criteria and Procedures Manual of the APA Sponsor Approval System (November 1996).
1991
Ethical Guidelines for the Teaching of Psychology in the Secondary Schoolsopens in new window (PDF, 922.4KB)
1993
Council approved the following criteria which pertain to continuing education offerings through or by an APA-approved sponsor’s branches or subsidiaries and wishes to offer APA-approved CE credit through the branch or subsidiary, complete oversight and administration of the program must come through the parent, or approved, organization. The approved sponsor must be involved fully in the planning and implementation of CE programs and must assume full responsibility for these programs.
If the above conditions do not apply, the branch or subsidiary must submit a separate application to APA for approval as a continuing education sponsor or must establish a co-sponsor relationship with parent, or approved, organization.
Note: This policy has been superseded by the Criteria and Procedures Manual of the APA Sponsor Approval System (November 1996).
Policy that provides membership status in TOPSS to all high school teacher affiliates
Council approved a motion that provides for all APA high school teacher affiliates to automatically become members of Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools (TOPSS).
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: Policy is out of date and has been replaced with a new policy.
1994
On the recommendation of the Board of Directors and the Board of Educational Affairs, Council approved a motion proposing that the Board of Directors and Council direct increased efforts and resources toward ongoing APA CE efforts to develop longer-term training modules and to be responsive to the education and training needs of practicing psychologists.
Note: This was determined to be an administrative directive rather than a policy.
In accordance with existing Committee of Accreditation policy that all interns should receive appropriate stipends and that all internships can be full or half time, Council reaffirms the existing APA policy on half time internships by acknowledging, supporting and facilitating compliance with and implementation of this policy.
In addition, in the geographic areas where there is a shortage of half time internships, Council encourages the development of half time opportunities to meet such needs.
Note: This policy has been superseded by the Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation of Programs in Professional Psychology, which was adopted by Council in August 1995, amended February 1999.
2002
2005
National Standards for High School Psychology Curriculaopens in new window (PDF, 826KB)
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: The Commission for the Recognition of Specialties and Proficiencies in Professional Psychology voted to not renew the approval for this proficiency.
2006
Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation of Programs in Professional Psychologyopens in new window (PDF, 151KB)
Note: The Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation in Professional Psychology (G&P) were replaced by the Standards of Accreditation for Health Service Psychology (SoA) on Jan. 1, 2017. The SoA were approved by the APA Council of Representatives in February 2015 and serves as a guiding document for health service psychology training programs seeking initial or continued accreditation.
Need for diversity in accreditation
That the Council of Representatives recognizes the spirit of compromise implicit in the Accreditation Summit agreement and specifically commends the group for its recognition of the importance of ensuring inclusion of individual and cultural diversity as noted in the overarching principle from the Summit report:
The Commission on Accreditation (CoA) is committed, to the fullest extent possible, to support diversity in all aspects of the accreditation enterprise. The CoA offers strong encouragement for, and a continuing expectation that, all organizations and groups will nominate individuals representing cultural and individual differences and diversity. The CoA will continuously monitor the nomination and appointment process to insure its ability to maintain diversity on the Commission and will report annually on the diversity of the CoA and its panels to its various publics (Accreditation Summit Report, p.3)
The Council also strongly encourages solicitation of nominations for the Public Interest Individual and Cultural Diversity seat from the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest, the ethnic minority associations, and other relevant organizations.
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: Policy is out of date and has been replaced with a new policy.
2007
Policy regarding concurrent accreditation with Canada
That the Council of Representatives approves the following changes in Domain A: Eligibility of the Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation of Programs in Professional Psychology (bracketed text to be deleted):
A. Doctoral Graduate Programs
Domain A: Eligibility
As a prerequisite for accreditation, the program’s purpose must be within the scope of the accrediting body and must be pursued in an institutional setting appropriate for the doctoral education and training of professional psychologists.
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The program offers doctoral education and training in psychology, one goal of which is to prepare students for the practice of professional psychology.
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The program is sponsored by an institution of higher education accredited by a nationally recognized regional accrediting body in the United States [or, in the case of Canadian programs, the institution is publicly recognized by the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada as a member in good standing].
Further, Council requests that staff work with the Canadian Psychological Association in revising the Memorandum of Understanding to allow for the discontinuation of concurrent accreditation.
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: Policy is out of date and has been replaced with a new policy.
2009
Proficiency in professional psychology: Assessment and treatment of serious mental illness
Policy expired in August 2018. A new petition for recognition of Psychological Assessment and Treatment of Persons with Serious Mental Illness/Severe Emotional Disturbance as a specialty was received in January 2018. Accordingly, the extension of the Assessment and Treatment of Serious Mental Illness proficiency expired Aug. 31, 2018.
2010
Proficiency in professional psychology: PsychopharmacologyPolicy expired in August 2018. The Commission for the Recognition of Specialties and Proficiencies in Professional Psychology voted to not renew the approval for this proficiency.
2011
APA Principles for Quality Undergraduate Education in Psychologyopens in new window (PDF, 53KB)
2014
APA Guidelines for Clinical Supervision in Health Service Psychologyopens in new window (PDF, 460KB)
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in August 2025. Rationale: Policy is out of date and has been replaced with a new policy.
1980
Compared to its predecessors, and as a generic document, DSM-III represents progress in diagnostic procedure.
However, despite substantive advances in the 'state of the art' of psychopathologic diagnosis, troublesome issues remain. Specifically, some of these issues relate to (1) conceptual obscurity and/or confusion, (2) a questionable broadening of the range and scope of categories classified as mental disorder, (3) use of a 'categorical' rather than 'dimensional' model, and (4) poor applicability to disorders in children. The whole area of diagnostic nomenclature is deserving of further study and research.
The inclusion of several new areas recognizing social and environmental influences on behavior and of a broader empirical data base with consequential increased objectivity and reliability make DSM-III more valuable than the DSM-I and DSM-II for treatment, training, and research.
Note: DSM III is the predecessor version of the current DSM IV. It has been superseded and the policy should be archived.
1985
The welfare of the public is best served when the diagnostic processes are used by mental health specialists trained and qualified in mental health diagnosis and/or diagnostic processes concerning mental states. Additionally, the development of consensus within APA is most likely to occur when, prior to APA's adoption of broad and complex policy positions, formal consultation with appropriate governance units occurs. Finally, be it resolved that APA adopt the policy that useful diagnostic nomenclature must be (a) supported by empirical data, (b) based on broadly representative data, and (c) carefully analyzed.
Note: DSM III is the predecessor version of the current DSM IV. It has been superseded and the policy should be archived.
1986
WHEREAS: The American Psychiatric Association is proposing a revision of the DSM-III with no collaboration and little input from APA and other mental health organizations; and
WHEREAS: The American Psychiatric Association previously utilized the benefits of research supported, in part, by taxpayers funds, some of which was research conducted by psychologists and other behavioral scientists and thus becomes information within the public domain; and
WHEREAS: The American Psychiatric Association has developed three new, controversial diagnoses for a special appendix (Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder now called Periluteal Phase Disorder, Masochistic Personality Disorder now called Self-Defeating Personality Disorder, and Sadistic Personality Disorder) without presenting any adequate scientific basis and which are potentially dangerous to women;
BE IT THEREFORE RESOLVED: The American Psychological Association is opposed to the inclusion of these diagnoses, even within an appendix section, and urges its members not to use such diagnoses, and
The Executive Officer of the APA is to inform the American Psychiatric Association of this action and broadly disseminate it to all appropriate governmental agencies, other mental health and relevant health organizations, and the general public.
Note: DSM III is the predecessor version of the current DSM IV. It has been superseded and the policy should be archived.
On Drug and Alcohol Treatment as Sub-issues of 'Substance Abuse'
Alcohol and drug abuse are part of a broad generic syndrome identified as substance abuse. Clinical experience suggests that the likelihood of successful intervention is enhanced if each case is considered individually.
The employment of behavioral techniques or drugs which have an aversive effect is among the currently accepted strategies for treating alcoholism. The use of such techniques requires the informed consent of the client or guardian. Such techniques may be appropriate when the client is in serious physical or psychological danger, or is a threat to others. Use of noxious or aversive stimuli must include every reasonable precaution to assure the safety, protection, and physical and emotional integrity of the client.
1987
Council voted to approve as APA policy the revision of the 1977 Standards for Providers of Psychological Services renamed General guidelines for providers of psychological servicesopens in new window (PDF, 712KB).
1988
Managed healthcare programs
WHEREAS, many mental health problems are reflective of profound problems of living, substantial intra-psychic disorganization or serve physical and psychological disruption; and
WHEREAS, some psychological services are specifically focused on the alleviation of the personal distress attendant thereto; and
WHEREAS, managed care or other health care delivery systems should not unduly discriminate against those consumers who need intensive care, against those who need specialty care, and should not systematically endorse short-term or biomedical intervention as the treatment of choice for all patients at the expense of individual needs; and
WHEREAS, managed care delivery programs, by their very nature, frequently impose artificial and/or economic barriers to consumer access to health care services and, as such, are as subject to mismanagement as are traditional funding and delivery systems; and
WHEREAS, many managed health care programs may unfairly exclude those with the greatest need from adequate care and/or otherwise put both consumer and participating professional at substantial economic/psychological risk; and
WHEREAS, it is important that mental health care delivery programs provide appropriate and equally high quality services to all persons in diverse client and underserved populations; and
WHEREAS, providers and patients should be informed of the limitations and restrictions to types and access of psychological services prior to subscribing to a plan (i.e., truth in advertising or explicit statements regarding any financial disincentives to treat and refer patients in need of psychological services),
THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association urges consumers, subscribers and psychologists to review carefully the mechanisms, procedures, practices and policies of managed care programs before deciding to participate. Although such programs may offer the potential to expand access to appropriate mental health care, they may also restrict availability of necessary psychological services.
It is further recommended that providers may wish to require as a condition of their participation that such managed health care delivery systems adequately and concretely demonstrate provisions to serve the consumer's interest with sufficient quantity and highest quality of health care based on the available scientific evidence of efficacy.
It is further recommended that consumers, subscribers and psychologists, as a condition of their participation, require that these programs practice truth in advertising regarding the range and duration of psychological services available through the plan and that these programs provide patients access to a diversity of psychological health care competencies based on the available scientific evidence of efficacy.
It is also recommended that providers require that such systems operate in accordance with prevailing standards of care and prevailing scientific knowledge, applicable ethical principles, and that the systems have sufficient economic resources to cover the delivery system's liabilities.
Finally, individual members, state psychological associations and divisions are strongly urged to monitor and inform themselves of the legal and regulatory requirements imposed on managed health care systems and to advocate that such requirements meet the principles enumerated herein.
1989
WHEREAS, the Association for the Severely Handicapped (TASH) has taken the position that persons diagnosed as having mental retardation plus mental illness ("dual diagnosed") should be so diagnosed only in conjunction with a medical evaluation given by a qualified psychiatrist, and
WHEREAS, the standards for diagnoses of mental illness for persons who also have mental retardation should be as stringent as for persons who are not handicapped, and
WHEREAS, psychologists are prominent in the research on the causes and prevention of both major conditions, are leaders in the area of diagnosis and treatment of both major conditions, and lead in the efforts to increase mental health services for all persons with mental retardation.
THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association go on record as supporting Division 33 (Mental Retardation) against the efforts of TASH by reaffirming psychology's traditional role in diagnosis, assessment, training and treatment in both the Mental Health and Mental Retardation fields.
1990
Resolution on licensing for psychoanalysts
On the recommendation of the Board of Directors and the Board of Professional Affairs, Council voted to approve the following resolution on licensing for psychoanalysts: [The text of the second paragraph of the resolution reflects amendments approved by Council in February 1992.]
"APA has long endorsed the principle of generic education and training for psychology, further recognizing that within any profession there are identifiable and demonstrable specialties.
Thus, from the standpoint of these principles, psychoanalysis is viewed as a set of theories and techniques. In addition, psychoanalysis is viewed as an advanced specialization of a number of professions rather than as an independent profession. Therefore, APA does not recognize psychoanalysis as an independent or licensable profession.
1991
Guidelines on Hospital Privileges: Credentialing and Bylawsopens in new window (PDF, 329KB)
Note: The Guidelines on hospital privileges: Credentialing and bylaws were archived by the APA Council of Representatives in February 2011.
1992
APA position statement on managed care (MC) and utilization review (UR)
WHEREAS Government officialdom, representatives of industry and employer groups, and representatives of managed care (MC) and utilization review (UR) companies are increasingly and aggressively promoting managed care as a solution to the nation's health care delivery problem;
AND WHEREAS objective data as to the efficacy of MC and UR approaches to the nation's health problems when adequate quantity and high quality of care are held constant is not extant;
AND WHEREAS degradation in the quantity and quality of care occasions rising concern;
AND WHEREAS the media and the courts (see New Republic, "Managed Care: A Sick Joke"; American Psychiatric News, December 20, 1992; New York Times, "Do They Want My Wife to Die?," April 15, 1992) have documented flagrant abuses by some MC and UR companies;
AND WHEREAS both administration and congressional proposals for health care reform, almost without exception, mandate the establishment of national MC and UR programs exempt from all state mandates as to benefit structure and regulation of service provisions and state controls as to the standards of care;
THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED The American Psychological Association calls upon the Congress and/or the President to develop objective data demonstrating that managed care and utilization review can effect economic savings while maintaining acceptable levels of quantity and quality care BEFORE committing to such programs as a solution to current problems in health care delivery.
The American Psychological Association believes that the exemption of any MC or UR program from state-mandated benefits and/or state-mandated controls is demonstrably contrary to the public interest unless such mandates and/or controls are replaced by federal controls and mandates offering the same or greater protection.
The American Psychological Association believes that all managed care and utilization review programs should be held to the same high standards of performance required of credentialed providers in the states in which MC and UR services are offered; and the APA urges its state affiliates to become involved in a legislative process designed to procure such regulation. In legislation of this type, professionals' responsibility to protect the public interest demands the involvement of all health disciplines. The Council of Representatives of the American Psychological Association requests that the affiliated state psychological associations:
- take a leadership role in developing the legislative process and content; and
- also take a leadership role in developing effective coalitions of health disciplines to address the increasingly serious problems in order to protect the public interest.
The American Psychological Association further asks the Congress and the Administration to develop minimum standards for federally sponsored national MC and UR programs as the most efficacious way to avoid the numerous problems currently affecting the quantity and quality of care that have developed under Medicare. Hopefully, such action at a federal level will also help diminish the spate of litigation which we believe MC and UR programs have already begun to engender.
1994
On the recommendation of the Board of Directors and the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest, Council voted to adopt the following resolution, as amended, as APA policy, replacing the 1985 resolution on television violence:
Whereas the consequences of aggressive and violent behavior have brought human suffering, lost lives, and economic hardship to our society as well as an atmosphere of anxiety, fear, and mistrust;
Whereas in recent years the level of violence in American society and the level of violence portrayed in television, film, and video have escalated markedly;
Whereas the great majority of research studies have found a relation between viewing mass media violence and behaving aggressively;
Whereas the conclusion drawn on the basis of over 30 years of research and a sizeable number of experimental and field investigations (Huston, et al., 1992; NIMH, 1982; Surgeon General, 1972) is that viewing mass media violence leads to increases in aggressive attitudes, values, and behavior, particularly in children, and has a long-lasting effect on behavior and personality, including criminal behavior;
Whereas viewing violence desensitizes the viewer to violence, resulting in calloused attitudes regarding violence toward others and a decreased likelihood to take action on behalf of a victim when violence occurs;
Whereas viewing violence increases viewers' tendencies for becoming involved with or exposing themselves to violence;
Whereas viewing violence increases fear of becoming a victim of violence, with a resultant increase in self-protective behaviors and mistrust of others;
Whereas many children's television programs and films contain some form of violence, and children's access to adult-oriented media violence is increasing as a result of new technological advances;
Therefore be it resolved that the American Psychological Association:
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urges psychologists to inform the television and film industry personnel who are responsible for violent programming, their commercial advertisers, legislators, and the general public that viewing violence in the media produces aggressive and violent behavior in children who are susceptible to such effects;
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encourages parents and other child care providers to monitor and supervise television, video, and film viewing by children;
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supports the inclusion of clear and easy-to-use warning labels for violent material in television, video, and film programs to enable viewers to make informed choices;
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supports the development of technologies that empower viewers to prevent the broadcast of violent material in their homes;
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supports the development, implementation, and evaluation of school-based programs to educate children and youth regarding means for critically viewing, processing, and evaluating video and film portrayals of both aggressive and prosocial behaviors;
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requests the television and film industry to reduce direct violence in "real life" fictional children's programming or violent incidents in cartoons and other television or film productions, and to provide more programming designed to mitigate possible effects of television and film violence, consistent with the guarantees of the First Amendment;
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urges the television and film industry to foster programming that models prosocial behaviors and seeks to resolve the problem of violence in society;
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offers to the television and film industry assistance in developing programs that illustrate psychological methods to control aggressive and violent behavior, and alternative strategies for dealing with conflict and anger;
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supports revision of the Film Rating System to take into account violence content that is harmful to children and youth;
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urges industry, government, and private foundations to develop and implement programs to enhance the critical viewing skills of teachers, parents, and children regarding media violence and how to prevent its negative effects;
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recommends that the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) review, as a condition for license renewal, the programming and outreach efforts and accomplishments of television stations in helping to solve the problem of youth violence;
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urges industry, government, and private foundations to support research activities aimed at the amelioration of the effects of high levels of mass media violence on children's attitudes and behavior (DeLeon, 1995).
Rationale: Outdated due to changes in film ratings, ability to block media from home devices, etc. and does not address issues that have arisen with the advent of the Internet and social media.
1995
Resolution concerning "Mental health consumer protection acts"
WHEREAS a major purpose of the American Psychological Association is to advance psychology as a science and profession as a means of promoting human welfare; and
WHEREAS for almost 50 years the ethical standards of the American Psychological Association have provided extensive safeguards for consumers of mental health services; and
WHEREAS those same standards have been incorporated into state law and regulation to provide additional statutory protection for the consumer; and
WHEREAS these same standards require psychologists to practice only within the boundaries of their competence as determined by demonstrable education, training, and experience; and
WHEREAS there are current efforts to introduce bills in the form of "mental health consumer protection acts" such as those currently being considered by the New Hampshire and Illinois legislatures which purport to protect consumers but on closer inspection contain many provisions that will actually harm consumers and curtail availability of quality services;
NOW THEREFORE the American Psychological Association is opposed to the enactment of legislation that, while seeming to protect the consumer, actually creates a bureaucracy and unnecessary barriers that interfere with consumer access to mental health services and fails to protect consumers.
On the recommendation of the Board of Directors and the Board of Professional Affairs, Council voted to approve the "Criteria for Guideline Development and Review," with the exception of the highlighted text shown in draft 2.3cl of the document.
Note: Replaced by Criteria for Practice Guideline Development and Evaluation (2001).
1996
Managed care accessibility and reimbursement criteria
APA commends those managed care organizations (MCOs) which publish the criteria they use to determine accessibility to, and reimbursement of psychological and neuropsychological services. APA recognizes these MCOs for their responsibility and commitment to publicize their critical decision-making rules.
Correspondingly, APA strongly objects to the practice of any organization that makes healthcare accessibility or reimbursement decisions without publishing the criteria upon which these decisions are based. It is the position of APA that such decision-making criteria should be made accessible so that these critical variables may be subjected to scientific, professional and public review and scrutiny.
Furthermore, it is the position of APA that all MCOs should publish not only their decision-making criteria, but also the process by which these criteria have been developed and applied. To implement the above policy Council requests that the Practice Directorate, on behalf of APA, solicit the MCOs for the release of their criteria and decision-making process.
Council voted to approve the following substitute motion regarding the Bill of Rights for Patients Undergoing Mental Health Treatment:
Council strongly and in principle endorses and encourages continuing consultation between the leadership of APA and leaders of other professional mental health associations in the formulation of a bill of rights for patients or clients receiving mental health treatment. The Board of Directors will have oversight authority of the bill of rights. [The Principles for the Provision of Mental Health Services and Substance Abuse Treatment Services were subsequently agreed upon.]
Note: This task has been completed and therefore the policy may be archived.
1997
Disaster response network
Council voted to approve designating the Committee for the Advancement of Professional Practice as the appropriate governance entity with responsibility for the Disaster Response Network administered by the Practice Directorate.1998
APA Activities Bearing on Licensure Challenges
1. Encouragement and assistance to State Psychological Associations (SPAs) and state licensing boards to move to single level doctoral licensure
2. Active consulting to SPAs in states that have dual level licensure
3. Encourage the recognition of individuals holding terminal masters degrees in psychology under existing state statutes, provided that such statutes do not recognize, regulate or govern the title or practice of psychology.
4. Convening exploratory meetings focusing on issues involving education, training and credentialing, at the Consolidated meetings with the Board of Directors, Committee for the Advancement of Professional Practice, Board of Professional Affairs, Board of Educational Affairs, American Psychological Association of Graduate Students, the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards and other relevant groups.
1999
Changing U.S. health care system
WHEREAS the health care system in this country has been dramatically transformed in the last decade from a patient-focused system with an emphasis on the provision of adequate services to a market-driven system increasingly concerned about the cost of providing care to the nation's citizenry;
WHEREAS this transformation has been extremely far-reaching in its influence on all aspects of the health care delivery system and on all communities of interest, including health care professionals and purchasers and consumers of health care services;
WHEREAS all aspects of the profession of psychology are being affected by the changing health care system, including its practices, the education and training of psychologists, related research directions and psychology's objective of promoting human welfare;
THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED That APA declares the changing health care system's impact on psychology and the public, with all its resulting challenges and opportunities, to be a matter of the highest priority and concern for the entirety of the Association.
2000
Practice Parameter: Screening and Diagnosis of Autismopens in new window (PDF, 116KB)
Note: Practice parameter: Screening and diagnosis of autism were automatically sunset on Dec. 31, 2017.
2002
Criteria for practice guideline development and evaluation
2005
Determination and documentation of the need for practice guidelines
2007
Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Girls and Womenopens in new window (PDF, 195KB)
Note: Guidelines for psychological practice with girls and women were automatically sunset on Dec. 31, 2017.
Resolution on opposing discriminatory legislation and initiatives aimed at lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons
Context
While legislation and initiatives that discriminate against lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people have been enacted for decades (Smith, 1997), there has been a dramatic increase in such enactments during the past several years. One form of these enactments has been legislation passed by states and other jurisdictions that restricts the rights of lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people in a variety of spheres including limiting access to the rights and responsibilities of marriage, restricting parental rights, and constraining access to legal recourse in the face of discrimination. The other major form of restrictive legal enactments has been popular initiatives proposing amendments to state constitutions that also result in restrictions on marriage and/or parenting rights or recourse in the face of discrimination. Some of the laws resulting from such legislation or initiatives also place restrictions on the rights of same-sex couples to enter into contractual arrangements of various kinds (e.g., Davidoff, 2006; Gay marriage ban goes too far, 2006).
Damage to Lesbians, Gay Men, and Bisexual People
The very process of introducing, debating, and voting on such measures—whether in legislative or referendum contexts—can have deleterious effects on lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people. The rhetoric of these debates tends to be grounded in undocumented and faulty arguments about gay people (Herek, 1998; McCorkle & Most, 1997); often revives old stereotypes and prejudices (Bullis & Bach, 1996); and portrays lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people as dangerous and threatening (Davies, 1982; Douglass, 1997; Eastland, 1996a, 1996b; Herman, 1997; McCorkle & Most, 1997; Moritz, 1995; Smith, 1997; Smith & Windes, 2000; Wieshoff, 2002). Much of the rhetoric includes a tone of moral condemnation (Smith, 1997). Lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people are thereby objectified and disenfranchised.
Effects of Such Legislation and Initiatives
These legislative and initiative actions result in practical restrictions on the social and political freedom of lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people. Some of these restrictions occur in the realm of the everyday; for example, in the context of the least restrictive of these legal actions, same-sex couples do not have access to the legal rights and responsibilities of civil marriage. Some of these restrictions occur in the context of more extraordinary events; for example, if one member of a same-sex couple has an accident and requires medical care, the couple’s signed and notarized medical power of attorney can be legally disregarded by hospital personnel in a jurisdiction that has the more restrictive legal enactments (e.g., Davidoff, 2006; Gay marriage ban goes too far, 2006).
These legislative and initiative actions can also result in psychological distress for lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people. Immediate consequences include fear, sadness, alienation, anger, and an increase in internalized homophobia (Russell, 2000; Russell & Richards, 2003). In addition, these actions can increase the degree to which lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people are affected by minority stress (Cochran & Mays, 2000; Cochran, Sullivan, & Mays, 2003; DiPlacido, 1998; Gilman, Cochran, Mays, Hughes, Ostrow, & Kessler, 2001; Herdt & Kertzner, 2006; King & Bartlett, 2006; Mays & Cochran, 2001; Meyer, 2003).
Incompatibility with APA Policies
Discriminatory legislation and initiatives stand in explicit violation of earlier APA policies. Relevant APA policies, rooted in empirical data, have established that there is no basis for discrimination against lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people (Conger, 1975); that there is no basis for legal enactments that limit legal recourse in the face of discrimination based on sexual orientation (APA, 1993); that there is no basis for discrimination against same-sex couples in marriage rights (Paige, 2005a) or parental rights (Paige, 2005b).
Therefore, there exists essential incompatibility between APA’s existing policies and the discriminatory legislation and initiatives that seek to limit the rights of lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people. Despite this incompatibility, it is expected that, in the foreseeable future, legislation and initiatives that discriminate against lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people will be introduced, debated, and voted on.
Resolution
WHEREAS various states and other jurisdictions have enacted legislation and/or constitutional amendments that limit the access of same-sex couples to the legal rights and responsibilities of marriage and that therefore affect their relationships with each other and/or with their children;
WHEREAS various states and other jurisdictions have enacted legislation and/or constitutional amendments that limit legal recourse available to lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people in the face of discrimination based on sexual orientation;
WHEREAS it has been the expressed or implied intent of some elected and appointed officials to apply these laws in a manner that selectively discriminates against lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people (e.g., Davidoff, 2006);
WHEREAS these legal restrictions resist the force of psychological data that provide "no evidence to justify discrimination against same-sex couples" (Paige, 2005a, p. 2);
WHEREAS these legal restrictions contradict two decades of empirical research that suggests "that the development, adjustment, and well-being of children with lesbian and gay parents do not differ markedly from that of children with heterosexual parents" (Paige, 2005b, p. 2);
WHEREAS the debate leading up to these legal enactments as well as their outcome cause undue psychological risk to same-sex couples and their children as well as to single lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals, and they create a hostile climate for all lesbian, gay, and bisexual people (Bullis & Bach, 1996; Davies, 1982; Donovan & Bowler, 1997; Douglass, 1997; Eastland, 1996a, 1996b; Gonsiorek, 1993; McCorkle & Most, 1997; Moritz, 1995; Moses-Zirkes, 1993; Russell, 2000; Russell & Richards, 2003; Smith, 1997; Whillock, 1995);
WHEREAS the psychological risks associated with exposure to prejudice and discrimination result in increased psychological distress (Cochran & Mays, 2000; Cochran, Sullivan, & Mays, 2003; DiPlacido, 1998; Gilman, Cochran, Mays, Hughes, Ostrow, & Kessler, 2001; Mays & Cochran, 2001; Meyer, 2003; Russell, 2000; Russell & Richards, 2003);
WHEREAS APA has taken clear stands against discrimination in any of its forms and against discrimination against lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people in particular (Conger, 1975);
WHEREAS current immigration law unfairly discriminates against same-sex couples when one is a U.S. citizen and the partner is not;
WHEREAS municipal laws that prohibit or otherwise limit households members who are not related by biology or marriage may unfairly affect same-sex couples, who typically lack access to marriage, as well as poor people and other-sex partners who do not choose to marry;
WHEREAS APA has policies that specifically oppose discrimination against same-sex couples in access to marriage (Paige, 2005a) and that oppose "any discrimination based on sexual orientation in matters of adoption, child custody and visitation, foster care, and reproductive health services" (Paige, 2005b, p. 3);
WHEREAS APA is increasingly adopting an international focus and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people in many parts of the world face hostile environments;
THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that APA reaffirms its opposition to discrimination against lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people and will take a leadership role in actively opposing the adoption of discriminatory legislation and initiatives;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA will convene a meeting of representatives of national health and mental health organizations to encourage a concerted response to discriminatory legislation and initiatives;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA will make deliberate efforts to hold meetings in states and other jurisdictions and to enter into contracts with entities located in states and other jurisdictions that do not put members of the organization at physical, emotional, or social risk;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA collaborate in amicus briefs with regard to such discriminatory legislation and that APA take other appropriate legal action to protect its employees who live in states and other jurisdictions that put members of the organization at physical, emotional, or social risk;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA, when meeting in a state or jurisdiction that has enacted legislation and/or constitutional amendments that limit access of same-sex couples to the legal rights and responsibilities of marriage and that therefore affect their relationships with one another and/or with their children, APA will take steps to promote the physical and psychological safety of its members and will offer specific and concrete measures to counter the hostile environment.
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA will ask the U. S. National Committee for Psychology to suggest a policy stance on antigay legislation internationally and to bring this policy to the International Union of Psychological Science General Assembly for discussion and adoption.
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA encourage the United States to enact immigration laws that allow same-sex couples in which one is a citizen and one is not access to the same rights, privileges, and responsibilities that apply to other-sex couples in which one is a U.S. citizen and the partner is not;
BE IT FINALLY RESOLVED that APA encourage municipalities to abolish laws that prohibit or otherwise limit households members who are not related by biology or marriage that unfairly affect same-sex couples, who typically lack access to marriage, as well as poor people and other-sex partners who do not choose to marry.
References
American Psychological Association. (1993). Resolution on state initiatives and referenda. Washington, DC: Author.
Bullis, C., & Bach, B. W. (1996). Feminism and the disenfranchised: Listening beyond the "other." In E. B. Ray (Ed.), Communication and disenfranchisement: Social health issues and implication (pp. 3-28). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (2000). Relation between psychiatric syndromes and behaviorally defined sexual orientation in a sample of the US population. Journal of Epidemiology, 151, 516-523.
Cochran, S. D., Sullivan, J. G., & Mays, V. M. (2003). Prevalence of mental disorders, psychological distress, and mental health service use among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 53-61.
Conger, J. J. (1975). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the legislative year 1974. Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Council of Representatives American Psychologist, 30, 62-651.
Davies, C. (1982). Sexual taboos and social boundaries. American Journal of Sociology, 87, 1032-1063.
Davidoff, J. (2006, February 27). Gay marriage ban may catch companies off guard. Retrieved February 28, 2006 from https://www.madison.com Gay marriage ban goes too far [Editorial]. (2006, February 26]. Virginia Pilot. Retrieved February 27, 2006 from https://home.hamptonroads.com
DiPlacido, J. (1998). Minority stress among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals: A consequence of heterosexism, homophobia, and stigmatization. In G. M. Herek (Eds.), Stigma and sexual orientation (pp. 138-159). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Donovan, T., & Bowler, S. (1997). Direct democracy and minority rights: Opinions on anti-gay and lesbian ballot initiatives. In S. L. Will & S. McCorkle (Eds.), Anti-gay rights: Assessing voter initiatives (pp. 109-125). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Douglass, D. (1997). Taking the initiative: Anti-homosexual propaganda of the Oregon Citizen’s Alliance. In S. L. Will & S. McCorkle (Eds.), Anti-gay rights: Assessing voter initiatives (pp. 17-32). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Eastland, L. S. (1996a). Defending identity: Courage and compromise in radical right contexts. In E. B. Ray (Ed.), Case studies in communication and disenfranchisement: Applications to social health issues (pp. 3-14). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Eastland, L. S. (1996b). The reconstruction of identity: Strategies of the Oregon Citizens Alliance. In E. B. Ray (Ed.), Communication and disenfranchisement: Social health issues and implications (pp. 59-75). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gilman, S. E., Cochran, S. D., Mays, V. M., Hughes, M., Ostrow, D., & Kessler, R. C. (2001). Risks of psychiatric disorders among individuals reporting same-sex sexual partners in the National Comorbidity Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 933-939.
Gonsiorek, J. (1993, May). Testimony in Colorado: Treading the fine line between scientific rigor, passion and social justice. Division 44 Newsletter, American Psychological Association, 9(1), 2.
Herdt, G., & Kertzner, R. (2006). I do, but I can’t: The impact of marriage denial on the mental health and sexual citizenship of lesbians and gay men in the United States. Sexuality Research and Social Policy: Journal of the National Sexuality Resource Center. Available at https://nsrc.sfsu.edu
Herek, G. M. (1998). Bad science in the service of stigma: A critique of the Cameron group’s survey studies. In G. M. Herek (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (pp. 223-255). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Herman, D. (1997). The antigay agenda: Orthodox vision and the Christian Right. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kilgore, J. W. (2004). Letter from Jerry W. Kilgore, Virginia Attorney General, to Hon. Robert G. Marshall.
King, M., & Bartlett, A. (2006). What same sex civil partnerships may man for health. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60, 188-191.
Mays, V. M., & Cochran, S. D. (2001).Mental health correlates of perceived discrimination among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1869-1876.
McCorkle, S., & Most, M. G. (1997). Fear and loathing on the editorial page: An analysis of Idaho's anti-gay initiative. In S. C. Witt & S. McCorkle (Eds.), Anti-gay rights: Assessing voter initiatives (pp. 63-76). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Meyer, I. H. (2003).Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674-697.
Moritz, M. J. (1995). "The Gay Agenda": Marketing hate speech to mainstream media. In R. K. Whillock & D. Slayden (Eds.), Hate speech (pp. 55-79). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Moses-Zirkes, S. (1993, April).Gay issues move to center of attention. APA Monitor, pp. 28-29.
Paige, R. U. (2005a). Sexual orientation and marriage: APA policy statement. Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the legislative year 2004. Minutes of the meeting of the Council of Representatives July 28 & 30, 2004, Honolulu, HI. Retrieved November 18, 2004, from the World Wide Web http:www.apa.org/governance. (To be published in Volume 60, Issue Number 5 of the American Psychologist.)
Paige, R. U. (2005b). Sexual orientation, parents, & children: APA policy statement. Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the legislative year 2004. Minutes of the meeting of the Council of Representatives July 28 & 30, 2004, Honolulu, HI. Retrieved November 18, 2004, from the World Wide Web http:www.apa.org/governance. (To be published in Volume 60, Issue Number 5 of the American Psychologist.)
Russell, G. M. (2000). Voted out: The psychological consequences of anti-gay politics. New York: New York University Press.
Russell, G. M., & Richards, J. A. (2003). Stressor and resilience factors for lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals confronting antigay politics. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 313-327.
Smith, R. R. (1997). Secular anti-gay advocacy in the Springfield, Missouri, bias crime ordinance debate. In S. L. Witt & S. McCorkle (Eds.), Anti-gay rights: Assessing voter initiatives (pp. 85-106). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Smith, R. R., & Windes, R. R. (2000). Progay/Antigay: The rhetorical war over sexuality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Whillock, R. K. (1995). The use of hate as a stratagem for achieving political and social goals. In R. K. Whillock & D. Slayden (Eds.), Hate speech (pp. 28-54). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Wieshoff, C. (2002). Naming, blaming, and claiming in public disputes: The 1998 Maine referendum on civil rights protection for gay men and lesbians. Journal of Homosexuality, 44, 61-82.
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February, 2019.
Note: These guidelines were automatically sunset on Feb. 16, 2017.
2009
Practice Guidelines Regarding Psychologists' Involvement in Pharmacological Issues
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2017.
2010
Guidelines for Child Custody Evaluations in Family Law Proceedings
Note: These guidelines were automatically sunset on Dec. 31, 2019.
Resolution on Ending Homelessness
WHEREAS safe, stable, affordable, accessible and permanent housing is a basic need, and its absence negatively impacts typical development, physical and mental health, academic success, family cohesion, and the ability to exercise individual rights and responsibilities (e.g. Zlotnick & Zerger, 2008; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2003; Donahue & Tuber, 1995; U.S. Conference of Mayors, 2009);
WHEREAS homelessness and risk of homelessness is matter of public health concern (e.g. Krieger & Higgins, 2002; Schnazer Dominguez, Shrout & Caton, 2007);
WHEREAS populations who have historically been discriminated against and marginalized have been disproportionately affected by the lack of affordable, accessible, safe and stable housing. Such oppressed groups include: racial and ethnic minorities, (e.g. African Americans, Native Americans), refugees and immigrants, older adults, veterans, persons with disabilities, including mental illness, female heads of household with children and youth, unaccompanied youth -- many of whom are lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth, and/or youth aging out of foster care systems (e.g. Lehman and Cordray, 1993; U.S. Conference of Mayors, 2008; U.S. Conference of Mayors, 2009; U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2009; Toro, Dworsky & Fowler, 2007; Shinn, 2007; Cochran, Stewart, Ginzler & Cauce, 2002);
WHEREAS ethnic minorities and marginalized persons including women have been disproportionately impacted by subprime loans, lower incomes, lower salaries, and higher unemployment rates which all contribute to homelessness (Manneh, 2008);
WHEREAS in times of economic downturn, job loss and high rates of underemployment and unemployment, more persons in urban, suburban and rural areas lose their homes, or are at risk of homelessness (e.g. U.S. Conference of Mayors, 2009; U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2008); and where ethnic minorities are especially vulnerable and at risk for losing the most (Manneh, 2008);
WHEREAS homelessness results from structural systemic issues including the lack of affordable housing; insufficient supportive community-based services, especially those intended to treat mental illnesses and/or substance abuse; under-funded schools that cannot adequately build foundations for academic or vocational success; limited job training programs and opportunities; a shortage of affordable day care and after school programs to support female-headed families; job layoffs; underemployment and unemployment; and escalating costs of food, housing and transportation (e.g. Bosman, 2009; National Alliance to End Homelessness (2009, 2010); National Coalition for the Homeless, 2009); Rafferty & Shinn, 1991; Zlotnick, Robertson, & Lahiff, 1999);
WHEREAS psychosocial stressors impacting mental and physical health are often associated with entrance into and exit from homelessness, and where expanded access to culturally competent, community-based prevention, intervention and treatment services, along with structural changes, contributes to the remediation of homelessness (e.g. Burt et al., 1999; Burt, Person & Montgomery, 2007; Haber & Toro, 2004; Morse et al., 1996);
WHEREAS the field of psychology is uniquely poised to contribute to the amelioration of homelessness through scientific research, program design and evaluation, education and training, advocacy, and the culturally competent assessment and treatment of persons across the life span who are without homes or at risk of homelessness (e.g. Haber & Toro, 2004; Shinn, 1992);
And WHEREAS psychologists aspire to enhance the physical, emotional and behavioral well being of all persons, especially those who are marginalized and most vulnerable (Health Care for the Homeless Clinicians’ Network, 2000; 2003).
THEREFORE , BE IT RESOLVED that:
the Council of Representatives of the American Psychological Association reaffirm its commitment to advance psychology’s contributions to ending homelessness in the following actions:
Direct research efforts towards the prevention of homelessness in marginalized and vulnerable populations; design a plan to disseminate an evidence-based intervention plan for those currently experiencing homelessness or at imminent risk of homelessness; support and/or conduct applied research on service utilization among chronically and pervasively mentally ill populations at risk for homelessness; and the evaluation of programs that support rapid return to stable and permanent housing.
Investigate methods and interventions to promote resilience in different populations at risk for homelessness including those within rural versus urban areas, single males versus female heads of household with children, unaccompanied youth (many of whom are gay, lesbian or transgendered and/or youth aging out of foster care systems), racial and ethnic minorities (e.g., African Americans, Native Americans), refugees and immigrants, persons reentering communities following incarceration, older adults, veterans, or persons with disabilities including mental illness (among other vulnerable populations). Recognize that implementation success may well require a change in approach, such as reducing the use of substance abuse as a basis of denial for shelter or services (Kosa, 2009; U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness, 2008).
Recommend training and educational practices that enhance the ability of psychologists to work effectively with populations at risk of homelessness or currently living without homes by expanding graduate school curricula focused on diverse and underserved populations; creating internships and continuing education to encourage psychologists to work with populations experiencing homelessness; and enlisting psychologists to offer appropriate mental health education programs to service providers, community-based organizations, community volunteers and the public at large focused on the remediation of homelessness.
Encourage psychologists to provide strength based clinical and assessment services to populations who are homeless or at risk of homelessness. Culturally competent services shall address a continuum of needs and focus on serving people in the communities in which they and their families live, and will take into consideration how specific structural systemic issues interact in different combinations and in different ways for specific populations. Psychologists are encouraged to establish meaningful collaborations with physicians, nurses, social workers, educators, service providers and advocates committed to addressing the multifaceted needs of persons who are experiencing homelessness or at risk of losing their homes.
Promote and advocate for policies and legislation that support the rapid reentry of persons into stable, safe, affordable and permanent housing. Including:
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Legislation that funds comprehensive services as well as safe, stable, affordable least restrictive and most appropriate and accessible housing in urban, suburban and rural areas.
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Advocate for funding for targeted comprehensive services, education and job training opportunities for youth in foster care, and for transitional services for those returning to home placement and/or communities.
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Advocate for education, job training and affordable day care to support families, including but not limited to poor and low income families.
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Legislation that would provide expanded funding for a range of mental health services for families, including but not limited to at risk families, unaccompanied youth and children in foster care placements, as well as persons of all ages with disabilities.
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Advocate for health care coverage for those without homes and at risk of losing stable or permanent housing.
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Advocate for an increase in mental health, substance abuse and alcohol abuse prevention and treatment programs.
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Advocate for comprehensive supportive services that promote the strengthening of families.
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Advocate that public funds be provided to finance not only emergency responses to homelessness, but also to implement preventative programs to reduce the incidence and prevalence of homeless persons and families.
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Advocate for stricter regulations governing financial institutions, predatory lending, credit, and mortgage practices.
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Disseminate accurate information about homelessness to psychologists, policymakers, and the public to call attention to structural systemic issues that exacerbate homelessness. Suggest both psychological (e.g. clinical) and systemic structural interventions for those who suffer the consequences of poverty and homelessness.
References
Bosman, J. (2009, July 28). Homeless families could face eviction from shelters over rules. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.comopens in new window
Burt, M. R., Aron, L. Y., Douglas, T., Valente, J., Lee, E., & Iwen, B. (1999). Homelessness: Programs and the people they serve (summary report). Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
Burt, M. R., Pearson, C., & Montgomery, A.E. (2007). Community wide strategies for preventing homelessness. Journal of Primary Prevention, 28, 265-279.
Cochran, B. N., Stewart, A. J., Ginzler, J. A., & Cauce, A. M. (2002). Challenges faced by homeless sexual minorities: Comparison of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender homeless adolescents with their heterosexual counterparts. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 773-777.
Donahue, P. J. & Tuber, S. B. (1995). The impact of homelessness on children’s level of aspiration. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 59, 249-255.
Haber, M., & Toro, P. A. (2004). Homelessness among families, children and adolescents: An ecological-developmental perspective. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 7, 123-164. https://usmayors.org/pressreleases/uploads/USCMHungercompleteWEB2009.pdf
Health Care for the Homeless Clinicians’ Network. (2000). Mental illness, chronic homelessness: An American disgrace. Healing Hands, 4(5), 1-2. Retrieved from: https://www.nhchc.org/Network/HealingHands/2000/October2000HealingHands.pdf
Health Care for the Homeless Clinicians’ Network. (2003). Homelessness and family trauma: The case for early intervention. Healing Hands, 7(2), 1-3. Retrieved from: https://www.nhchc.org/Network/HealingHands/2003/hh-0503.pdfKrieger, J., & Higgins, D. L. (2002). Housing and health: Time again for public health action. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 758-768.
Kosa, F. (2009). The homemakers. Miller-McCune, March-April, 2009. Retrieved March 23, 2010 https://www.miller-mccune.com/business-economics/the-homemakers-3843/
Lehman, A. F., & Cordray, D. S. (1993). Prevalence of alcohol, drug, and mental disorders among the homeless: One more time. Contemporary Drug Problems, 20, 355-383.
Manneh, S. (2008). In economic downshift, minorities risk losing most. Retrieved from https://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=8066e344ffa64d97566b5fe357992b20&from=rss
Morse, G. A., Calsyn, R. J., Miller, J., Rosenberg, P., West, L., & Gilliland, J. (1996). Outreach to homeless mentally ill people: Conceptual and clinical considerations. Community Mental Health Journal, 32, 261-274.
National Alliance to End Homelessness (2010, March). Chronic homelessness: Policy solutions. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved March 22, 2010 https://www.endhomelessness.org/content/article/detail/2685
National Alliance to End Homelessness (2009, Sept). Geography of homelessness, Part 3: Subpopulations by geographic type. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved March 22, 2010 https://www.endhomelessness.org/content/article/detail/2529
Rafferty, Y., & Shinn, M. (1991). The impact of homelessness on children. American Psychologist, 46, 1170-1179.
Schnazer, B., Dominguez, B., Shrout, P. E., & Caton, C. L. (2007) Homelessness, health status and health care use. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 464-469.
Shinn, M. (1992). Homelessness: What is a psychologist to do? American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 1-24.
Shinn, M. (2007). International homelessness: Policy, socio-cultural, and individual Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2003). Blueprint for change: Ending chronic homelessness for people with serious mental illnesses and co-occurring substance use disorders. Rockville, MD: Center for Mental Health Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
Toro, P. A., Dworsky, A., & Fowler, P.J. (2007). Homeless youth in the United States: Recent research findings and intervention approaches. In D. Dennis, G. Locke, & J. Khadduri (Eds.), Toward understanding homelessness: The 2007 National Symposium on Homelessness Research. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
U.S. Conference of Mayors (2008). Hunger and homelessness survey: A status report on hunger and homelessness in America’s cities. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from https://usmayors.org/pressreleases/documents/hungerhomelessnessreport_
121208.pdf.
U.S. Conference of Mayors (2009). Hunger and homelessness survey: A status report on hunger and homelessness in America’s cities. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from https://usmayors.org/pressreleases/uploads/USCMHungercompleteWEB2009.pdf
U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness (2008, March). Inventory of federal programs that may assist homeless families with children. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved March 23, 2010 https://www.usich.gov/library/publications/FamilyInventory_Mar2008.pdf
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, (2008): The 2008 Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress. Retrieved from U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development website: https://www.hudhre.info/documents/4thHomelessAssessmentReport.pdf
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, (2008): The 2008 Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress. Retrieved from U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development website: https://www.hudhre.info/documents/4thHomelessAssessmentReport.pdf
Zlotnick, C., & Zerger, S. (2008). Survey findings on characteristics and health status of clients treated by the federally funded (US) Health Care for the Homeless Program. Health and Social Care in the Community, 17, 18–26.
Zlotnick, C., Robertson, M. J., & Lahiff, M. (1999). Getting off the streets: Economic resources and residential exits from homelessness, Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 209-224.
Note: Policy archived by the APA Council of Representatives in October 2021. Rationale: Out of date and replaced APA resolution on ending homelessnessopens in new window (PDF, 100KB)
1965
Research findings belong in the public domain
It is a tradition of science that its research findings belong in the public domain. Scientists do undertake research of a confidential nature for reasons which may be economic, military, social, or purely personal. However, until such research has been reported in meetings or published in scientific journals it is not, properly speaking, scientific knowledge.
It is a responsibility of the American Psychological Association to ensure that all reported or published psychological findings be fully and freely available to the public.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Out of date, as recommended by the Board of Scientific Affairs.
1966 (Amended 1967)
Council voted to adopt the following statement on "Automated Test Scoring and Interpretation Practices" as a standard for members of the APA and for organizations by whom members are employed:
The advent of sophisticated computer technology and recent psychological research has made it feasible and desirable for consulting and service organizations to offer computer-based scoring and interpretation services for diverse psychological measurement instruments. Since these services will be rendered to clients with varying degrees of training in psychological measurement and since improper use of such interpretations could be detrimental to the well-being of individuals, it is considered proper for the American Psychological Association to establish various conditions which must be met before such services should be offered to clients.
Any organization offering the services described above should, in order to protect the public welfare, have on its staff or as an active consultant (a) in a state having legal certification or licensure, a psychologist qualified to practice under the laws of that state, (b) in a state having nonstatutory certification, a psychologist holding the highest ranked certificate in that state, or (c) in jurisdictions having neither of the above a Diplomate of the American Board of Examiners in Professional Psychology.
Such services will be offered only to individuals or organizations for use under the active supervision of qualified professional personnel with appropriate training. The qualified person must be either a staff member or a responsible, active consultant to the individual or organization receiving such services.
Organizations offering scoring services must maintain an active quality control program to assure the accuracy and correctness of all reported scores.
Organizations offering interpretation services must be able to demonstrate that the computer programs, or algorithms on which the interpretations rest, are based on appropriate research to establish the validity of the programs and procedures used in arriving at interpretations.
The public offering of an automated test interpretation service will be considered as a professional-to-professional consultation. In this the formal responsibility of the consultant is to the consultee but his ultimate and overriding responsibility is to the client.
The organization offering services is responsible that their reports adequately interpret the test materials. They should not misinterpret nor overinterpret the data nor omit important interpretations that the consultee would reasonably expect to be included.
The organization offering services is responsible that their report be interpretable by the consultee. The technical level of the report should be understandable and not misleading to the consultee. The professional consultee is responsible for integrating the report into his client relationship. Where technical interpretations could be misleading, the organization offering service would be responsible either not to accept the referral, to modify the form of their report, or to avoid otherwise its misinterpretation.
Note: Out of date.
1977
Guidelines for the Use of Human Participants in Research or Demonstrations Conducted by High School Students
High school students planning to use human participants in research or demonstrations are urged to become thoroughly acquainted with the American Psychological Association's Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Research with Human Participants. The potential problems of such research may not be immediately evident to those doing research for the first time. Among specific guidelines for the use of human participants in research or demonstrations conducted by high school students are the following:
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All research and demonstrations involving human participants should be properly supervised by a qualified school authority.
The supervisor should assume the primary responsibility for all conditions of the experiment. The following requirements should be fulfilled:-
The supervisor should be familiar with the relevant literature concerning previous work done in the student's chosen area. When possible, the student should also review and summarize appropriate reading material.
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A written preliminary outline of the student's plan of study, to include a statement of possible outcomes of the project and a description of how the student plans to accomplish the objective of the study, should be submitted and be available for the evaluation by relevant school authorities. Such an outline should include the general and specific purposes of the research or demonstration and a justification of the methods to be employed.
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Participants should not be exposed to physical or mental risk.
High school students should not undertake procedures involving human participants that are likely to harm the participants. Participants should not be subjected to any risks greater than the ordinary risks of daily life. To assure compliance with this guideline, high schools are encouraged to form student-faculty committees that examine all research or demonstration proposals from the point of view of the APA's Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Research with Human Participants , to assure that risks do not exceed the ordinary risks of daily life. Such committees might be constituted at the classroom level, across classes, at the department level, or school-wide. -
Agreement to participate should be obtained from all participants.
The individual conducting the project should obtain each participant's agreement to participate, based on a full understanding of what that agreement implies. Obtaining agreement involves providing a full explanation of the research or demonstration procedures with special emphasis on aspects of the project likely to affect willingness to participate. All questions asked by any prospective participant should be answered directly, honestly, and completely. Participants who are too young or for other reasons cannot comprehend the project should be excluded, or proxy consent should be obtained from parents or guardians; the principle also applies to the siblings of the person conducting the project. A clear and fair agreement that clarifies the responsibilities of both should exist between the individual conducting the project and the participant. All promises and commitments included in that agreement should be honored by the person conducting the project. Such a formal agreement may not be necessary in some studies of public behavior, but in such studies it is especially crucial the participants' rights not be infringed. -
Participants should have the right to refuse to participate.
Potential research participants have the right to refuse to participate and the right to withdraw from participation, for cause, at any time during the course of the research or demonstration procedures. The person conducting the project should explain this right to all potential participants prior to the commencement of the research or demonstration procedures. The person conducting the project should also provide opportunity for withdrawal with minimum discomfort during participation, particularly if a group activity is involved.
Protection of this right requires special vigilance when the individual conducting the project is in a position of influence over the participant. For example, students in lower grades than the person conducting the project should not be pressured into participating and should not be publicly identified if they decline to participate in a particular experiment, survey or demonstration. Under no circumstances should potential participants be exposed to ridicule, force, or excessive group pressure. -
The student should deal with possible undesirable consequences for participants.
The supervisor should discuss with the student possible undesirable consequences of the project that should result in at least a temporary halt in the project. In the event that unanticipated undesirable consequences are detected by the individual conducting the project, he or she should halt the project if it is still in progress and notify the supervisor or other appropriate school authorities. -
The anonymity of the information gathered should be preserved.
In certain projects, a participant may not wish the person conducting the project to disclose the results of the study in a way that individually identifies the participant. Only with the participant's full agreement can the person conducting the project disclose identifiable information about that participant to any other individual. A plan for protecting the anonymity of the information gathered should be a part of the procedure for obtaining initial agreement to participate. The person conducting the project should make every effort to maintain anonymity, but participants should be made aware that in some cases it may be difficult or impossible to maintain full anonymity about all of the information obtained. Formal agreement to participate may not be necessary in some studies of public behavior, but preservation of anonymity is as important in the observation of public behavior as it is in other research or demonstrations. In public situations, information should not be collected in such a way that individuals are identifiable.
It is suggested that persons conducting projects encourage potential participants to read these guidelines. To ensure a careful reading and adequate understanding of these guidelines, persons conducting projects may wish participants to sign a statement such as that below.
I have read the Guidelines for the Use of Human Participants in Research or Demonstration Conducted by High School Students. I have received satisfactory answers to my questions concerning this research or demonstration. I understand that every effort will be made to protect the anonymity of my responses although it cannot be guaranteed. I understand that I may withdraw from this research or demonstration without penalty at any time.
Name
Signature
Date
1979
Council voted to accept the Final Report of the Committee on Psychological Tests and Assessment to the Council on the Use of Tests with Members of Minority Groups and the Disadvantaged.
Note: The report has been superseded by pertinent sections of Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (1999) American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, National Council on Measurement in Education.
1981
Impact of selective reduction of support for "social research"
While the American Psychological Association recognizes the appropriate and legitimate role of the political process in determining priorities for research on problems that require the expenditure of public funds, we object to policies that a priori favor one theoretical approach over another, or that selectively suppress certain scientific approaches that happen to be at odds with the prior opinions or ideology of political officials.
The selective reduction of support for "social research" by the current Administration appears to be a case in which ideological considerations are inappropriately influencing the scientific process. Current policies of the Administration (e.g., in the mental health area) presume that certain research approaches are more valuable than others. There is no evidence to support such a premise. In fact, scientific evidence suggests that many mental health and other social problems are best understood and dealt with by looking at the joint impact of biological, behavioral, and social processes. Clearly, policies such as these are inimical both to productive scientific inquiry and to the ultimate solution of many critical social problems in our nation. We strongly oppose such policies that include selective reductions that bias the development of scientific research in all areas including social research.
On the recommendation of the Board of Scientific Affairs, the Education and Training Board, and the Board of Directors, Council voted to adopt the revised "Guidelines for the Use of Animals in School Science Behavior Projects".
Note: Out of date.
1987
Guidelines for the Use of Drugs in Research by Psychologistsopens in new window (PDF, 41.5KB)
1990
On the recommendation of the Board of Directors, Board of Scientific Affairs and the Committee on Animal Research and Ethics, Council voted to endorse the American Association for the Advancement of Science Resolution on the Use of Animals in Research, Testing and Education.
Resolution on the Use of Animals in Research, Testing and Education
Joint Resolution Adopted by the AAAS Board and Council in February 1990
Endorsed by the APA Council of Representatives in August 1990
Archived by the APA Council of Representatives in February 2006
Whereas society as a whole, and the scientific community in particular, supports and encourages research that will improve the well-being of humans and animals, and that will lead to the cure or prevention of disease; and
Whereas the use of animals has been and continues to be essential not only in applied research with direct clinical applications in humans and animals, but also in research that furthers the understand of biological processes; and
Whereas the American Association for the Advancement of Science supports appropriate regulations and adequate funding to promote the welfare of animals in laboratory or field situations and deplores any violations of those regulations; and
Whereas the American Association for the Advancement of Science deplores harassment of scientist and technical personnel engaged in animal research, as well as destruction of animal laboratory facilities; and
Whereas in order to protect the public, both consumer and medical products must be tested for safety, and such testing may in some cases require the use of animal; and
Whereas the American Association for the Advancement of Science has long acknowledged the importance and endorsed the use of animal experimentation in promoting human and animal welfare and in advancing scientific knowledge;
Be it resolved that the American Association of the Advancement of Science continues to support the use of animal and in scientific research; and
Be it further resolved that scientist bear several responsibilities for the conduct of research with animals: (1) to treat their subjects with proper care and sensitivity to their pain and discomfort, consistent with the requirements of the particular study and research objectives; (2) to be informed about and adhere to relevant laws and regulations pertaining to animal research; and (3) to communicate respect for animal subjects to employees, students, and colleagues; and
Be it further resolved that the development and use of complementary or alternative research or testing methodologies, such as computer models, tissue, or cell cultures, be encouraged where applicable and efficacious; and
Be it further resolved that the use of animals by students can be important component of science education as long as it is supervised by teachers who are properly trained in the welfare and use of animals in laboratory or field settings and is conducted by institutions capable of providing proper oversight; and
Be it further resolved that scientist support the efforts to improve animal welfare that do not include policies or regulations that would compromise scientific research; and
Be it further resolved that the American Association for the Advancement of Science encourages its affiliated societies and research institutions to support this resolution.
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2006.
1993
On the recommendation of the Board of Directors, the Board of Scientific Affairs, and the Committee on Animal Research and Ethics, Council approved the revised Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Animals, as amended to reflect Council's concern for cold-blooded as well as warm-blooded laboratory animals.
Note: Out of date.
1996
Statement on the Disclosure of Test Dataopens in new window (PDF, 140.5KB)
1997
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: This policy is out of date.
1998
Council voted to adopt the Committee on Animal Research and Ethics' (CARE's) Guidelines for the Use of Animals in Behavioral Projects in Schools.
Note: Out of date.
1999
The universality of science
2004
Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education
The Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education ( Code ) is a guide for professionals in fulfilling their obligation to provide and use tests that are fair to all test takers regardless of age, gender, disability, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, linguistic background, or other personal characteristics. Fairness is a primary consideration in all aspects of testing. Careful standardization of tests and administration conditions helps to ensure that all test takers are given a comparable opportunity to demonstrate what they know and how they can perform in the area being tested. Fairness implies that every test taker has the opportunity to prepare for the test and is informed about the general nature and content of the test, as appropriate to the purpose of the test. Fairness also extends to the accurate reporting of individual and group test results. Fairness is not an isolated concept, but must be considered in all aspects of the testing process.
The Code applies broadly to testing in education (admissions, educational assessment, educational diagnosis, and student placement) regardless of the mode of presentation, so it is relevant to conventional paper-and-pencil tests, computer based tests, and performance tests. It is not designed to cover employment testing, licensure or certification testing, or other types of testing outside the field of education. The Code is directed primarily at professionally developed tests used in formally administered testing programs. Although the Code is not intended to cover tests made by teachers for use in their own classrooms, teachers are encouraged to use the guidelines to help improve their testing practices.
The Code addresses the roles of test developers and test users separately. Test developers are people and organizations that construct tests, as well as those that set policies for testing programs. Test users are people and agencies that select tests, administer tests, commission test development services, or make decisions on the basis of test scores. Test developer and test user roles may overlap, for example, when a state or local education agency commissions test development services, sets policies that control the test development process, and makes decisions on the basis of the test scores.
Many of the statements in the Code refer to the selection and use of existing tests. When a new test is developed, when an existing test is modified, or when the administration of a test is modified, the Code is intended to provide guidance for this process.
The Code is not intended to be mandatory, exhaustive, or definitive, and may not be applicable to every situation. Instead, the Code is intended to be aspirational, and is not intended to take precedence over the judgment of those who have competence in the subjects addressed.
The Code provides guidance separately for test developers and test users in four critical areas:
- Developing and Selecting Appropriate Tests
- Administering and Scoring Tests
- Reporting and Interpreting Test Results
- Informing Test Takers
The Code is intended to be consistent with the relevant parts of the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], and National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME], 1999). The Code is not meant to add new principles over and above those in the Standards or to change their meaning. Rather, the Code is intended to represent the spirit of selected portions of the Standards in a way that is relevant and meaningful to developers and users of tests, as well as to test takers and/or their parents or guardians. States, districts, schools, organizations and individual professionals are encouraged to commit themselves to fairness in testing and safeguarding the rights of test takers. The Code is intended to assist in carrying out such commitments.
The Code has been prepared by the Joint Committee on Testing Practices, a cooperative effort among several professional organizations. The aim of the Joint Committee is to act, in the public interest, to advance the quality of testing practices. Members of the Joint Committee include the American Counseling Association (ACA), the American Educational Research Association (AERA), the American Psychological Association (APA), the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP), the National Association of Test Directors (NATD), and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME).
Copyright 2004 by the Joint Committee on Testing Practices. This material may be reproduced in its entirety without fees or permission, provided that acknowledgment is made to the Joint Committee on Testing Practices. Any exceptions to this, including requests to excerpt or paraphrase this document must be presented in writing to Director, Testing and Assessment, Science Directorate, APA. This edition replaces the first edition of the Code, which was published in 1988. Please cite this document as follows: Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education. (2004). Washington, DC: Joint Committee on Testing Practices. (Mailing Address: Joint Committee on Testing Practices, Science Directorate, American Psychological Association, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242.
A. Developing and Selecting Appropriate Tests
B. Administering and Scoring Tests
C. Reporting and Interpreting Test Results
C-8. Develop and implement procedures for monitoring test use, including consistency with the intended purposes of the test.
D. Informing Test Takers
Under some circumstances, test developers have direct communication with the test takers and/or control of the tests, testing process, and test results. In other circumstances the test users have these responsibilities.
Test developers or test users should inform test takers about the nature of the test, test taker rights and responsibilities, the appropriate use of scores, and procedures for resolving challenges to scores.
D-1. Inform test takers in advance of the test administration about the coverage of the test, the types of question formats, the directions, and appropriate test-taking strategies. Make such information available to all test takers.
D-2. When a test is optional, provide test takers or their parents/guardians with information to help them judge whether a test should be taken—including indications of any consequences that may result from not taking the test (e.g., not being eligible to compete for a particular scholarship) —and whether there is an available alternative to the test.
D-3. Provide test takers or their parents/guardians with information about rights test takers may have to obtain copies of tests and completed answer sheets, to retake tests, to have tests rescored, or to have scores declared invalid.
D-4. Provide test takers or their parents/guardians with information about responsibilities test takers have, such as being aware of the intended purpose and uses of the test, performing at capacity, following directions, and not disclosing test items or interfering with other test takers.
D-5. Inform test takers or their parents/guardians how long scores will be kept on file and indicate to whom, under what circumstances, and in what manner test scores and related information will or will not be released. Protect test scores from unauthorized release and access.
D-6. Describe procedures for investigating and resolving circumstances that might result in canceling or withholding scores, such as failure to adhere to specified testing procedures.
D-7. Describe procedures that test takers, parents/guardians, and other interested parties may use to obtain more information about the test, register complaints, and have problems resolved.
Note: The membership of the Working Group that developed the Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education and of the Joint Committee on Testing Practices that guided the Working Group is as follows:
The Joint Committee intends that the Code be consistent with and supportive of existing codes of conduct and standards of other professional groups who use tests in educational contexts. Of particular note are the Responsibilities of Users of Standardized Tests (Association for Assessment in Counseling, 1989), APA Test User Qualifications (2000), ASHA Code of Ethics (2001), Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (1992), NASP Professional Conduct Manual (2000), NCME Code of Professional Responsibility (1995), and Rights and Responsibilities of Test Takers: Guidelines and Expectations (Joint Committee on Testing Practices, 2000).
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2017.
1956
Psychology as a science is dedicated to the discovery of truth. Psychology as a profession is dedicated to the application of that scientific knowledge in the interests of human welfare. The American Psychological Association will, therefore, take an active position on any public policy or issue which jeopardizes these fundamental scientific and professional goals.
In areas other than the above, it is not the function of the American Psychological Association to attempt to influence the formulation of public policy. However, it may be appropriate for the Association to take a position with respect to such policy when it is being formally determined or implemented, where the criterion for action is the special competence of psychology as a science and a profession.
Note: Out of date.
1965
Council voted the following resolution:
The Council of Representatives of the American Psychological Association is gratified by the passage of Public Law No. 89-97 calling for one or more studies of the mental health of children. It believes that many grave national problems, such as crime and delinquency, mental disorders, and social incompetence among adults, may be most effectively dealt with by early identification and intervention in years of childhood and adolescence. It sees the problem as involving a wide range of social agencies--educational, medical, correctional, and welfare--as well as a number of lay groups concerned with human development. It applauds the initiative of the American Psychiatric Association in establishing the Joint Commission on Mental Health of Children. It approves the participation of the American Psychological Association on the Commission on the basis of equal representation on its governing body of the range of organizations that have been actively concerned with the mental health of children (Newman, 1965).
Note: Out of date and replaced by the APA Resolution on Children’s Mental Health.
1969
Abortion
WHEREAS, in many state legislature, bills have recently been introduced for the purpose of repealing or drastically modifying the existing criminal codes with respect to the termination of unwanted pregnancies; and WHEREAS, termination of unwanted pregnancies is clearly a mental health and child welfare issue, and a legitimate concern of APA; be it resolved, that termination of pregnancy be considered a civil right of the pregnant woman, to be handled as other medical and surgical procedures in consultation with her physician, and to be considered legal if performed by a licensed physician in a licensed medical facility.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Avoids duplication as this language is included in the 1980 resolution on abortion.
1972
Council voted the following resolution:
BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association call upon President Nixon to reaffirm the national commitment to early child development, as stated by him in April 1969, and to implement the resolution of the White House Conference on Children calling for the permanent establishment of the Office of Child Development; and, BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association call upon the President and members of Congress to support programs of comprehensive child development.
Note: Out of date.
1974
Recognizing that the psychological and moral burdens imposed on U.S. citizens by the war in Indochina -- confronting them with profound divisions within their society, with anguish about the morality of actions taken in their names, with distrust of their national leadership, and with doubts about the justification for the sacrifices imposed upon them - weighed most heavily on the young men who were called upon to participate personally in the fighting in Indochina;
That the usual difficulty experienced by the veteran in the process of transition from military to civilian life, due to psychological traumata and other reasons, "had been markedly greater for the Vietnam veteran because of the controversial nature of the Vietnamese conflict and the rapid social-economic changes that occurred during his absence";
That "studies conducted by the military and the Veterans Administration indicate that serious and prolonged readjustment problems exist in approximately one out of five new veterans, but to a lesser degree, were experienced by all";
That Vietnam veterans as a group and their families have been receiving insufficient moral, psychological, and emotional support to enable them to come to terms with their experiences, to find employment, and to prepare themselves for the future;
And that many thousands of men who, for reasons of conscience, resisted the draft, or disobeyed military orders, or deserted, are now facing psychological problems associated with separation from their families, exclusion from their societies, and stigmatization as lawbreakers,
The Council of Representatives of the American Psychological Association endorses legislative and executive action leading to:
1. Increased benefits for Vietnam veterans and improvements in the administration of such benefits, in order to assure that the educational, occupational, medical, and psychological needs of these men are adequately met, with real-dollar benefits at levels at least as high as those extended to World War II veterans;
2. A broadened definition of Service-related disabilities, which would give veterans the opportunity, on a wholly voluntary basis, to obtain treatment for psychological problems that do not require hospitalization or that manifest themselves only some time after their return home, and to obtain treatment for members of their families who play a significant role in their readjustment;
3. Freedom of choice for Vietnam veterans in contracting for psychological treatment, allowing them - whether they are still in service or out of service - the option of receiving payment for such treatment by civilian practitioners of their own choosing, if they feel that their needs cannot be adequately met by mental health personnel working within the military or the Veterans Administration; and
4. Active participation of Vietnam era veterans in developing and running the programs designed to serve their needs.
Council urges APA divisions and state and local psychological associations to establish registers of appropriately qualified psychologists whose skills in therapy, counseling, group leadership, or other psychological services might be useful in the rehabilitation of Vietnam veterans and war resisters, and who are prepared to devote some portion of their time to work with these men and their families, free of charge or at reduced rates. Such registers should be forwarded to Central Office so that they might be maintained centrally. Psychologists should be urged to participate in these programs, indicating both their skills and their time limitations, with the understanding that the existence of the resisters will be publicized among prospective clients and that inquiries by such clients would periodically be referred to them.
Council requests that the Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility for Psychology generate recommendations for just and humane policies designed to ease the psychological problems faced by war resisters and to help them reestablish themselves within the society.
Council urges relevant divisions, boards, and committees within APA to develop mechanisms and provide occasions for discussing and analyzing the psychological and moral implications of the Vietnam War and its effects on the American population and particularly on the generation most directly confronted with it.
Council requests that the APA Central Office and relevant boards and committees take active steps to promote and support legislative and executive actions, as well as activities within the profession, designed to implement the above proposals. (1974)
*Quotations taken from a memorandum from the Department of Medicine and Surgery of the Veterans Administration, reproduced in part in the Congressional Record of October 12, 1973.
Note: Out of date.
1978
Council voted strongly to endorse the United Nations International Year of the Child and actively to encourage the establishment of a National Commission for the International Year of the Child; further, the Council instructs APA's Representatives to the International Union of Psychological Science (IUPS) to request that the 1978 Assembly of the IUPS to endorse and encourage its member societies to support to the fullest extent possible the objectives and activities with the International Year of the Child (Conger, 1978).
Note: Out of date.
Nuclear arms
The American Psychological Association (1) calls upon the President of the United States to propose to the U.S.S.R. that together both countries negotiate an immediate halt to the nuclear arms race. Specifically, we call upon each country to adopt an immediate mutual freeze on all further testing, production, and deployment of all nuclear warheads, missiles, and delivery systems; and (2) calls upon the Administration and Congress to transfer the funds saved to civilian use. Concurrently, they should work jointly with labor, management, and local communities to develop plans to convert the nuclear arms industry to civilian production, thus protecting jobs and strengthening our national economy. We hereby call upon elected officials at local, state, and federal levels publicly to endorse this resolution.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: This is outdated cold war policy and an historical artifact. It refers to the nuclear arms race between the United States and Russia.
1984
Council adopted the following resolution: The recent International Conference on Psychological Abuse of Children and Youth has presented information that the incidence and prevalence of such acts are so high that concerned individuals need to organize to coordinate necessary efforts in definition, prevention, treatment, and research. The American Psychological Association recognizes the importance of this issue, and to this end invites relevant boards, committees, and divisions/states to explore the major issues of definition, prevention, treatment, and research, and to prepare brief position papers with supporting data, to be forwarded to the Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility for Psychology for consolidation and submission to the Council's January 1985 session.
Note: Out of date.
1985
Boxing
WHEREAS, recent studies show that existing medical controls and safety measures have not prevented chronic brain damage in boxers who have fought in recent years (after 1960), and
WHEREAS, neuropsychological testing is a highly sensitive and accurate means of detecting brain damage in fighters and others with head injuries, and
WHEREAS, many psychologists educate the public and especially young people through courses and textbooks, and
WHEREAS, resolutions calling for the elimination of both amateur and professional boxing have been passed recently by the American Medical Association and the British Medical Association,
BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association: Encourage the elimination of both amateur and professional boxing, a sport in which the objective is to inflict injury; communicate its opposition to boxing to appropriate regulating bodies; assist state psychological societies to work with their state legislatures to enact laws to eliminate laws to eliminate boxing in their jurisdictions; educate the American public, especially children and young adults, about the dangerous effects of boxing on the health of participants; specifically, psychologists who give courses and who write textbooks that take up relations between behavior and the nervous system are asked to consider including material on boxing an brain damage in their courses and textbooks; encourage neuropsychological evaluations of boxers be given on periodic (one or two year) basis; and encourage ring-side evaluations during bouts be done by individuals who are trained to perform neurocognitive investigations of acute mental status change.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: This policy is extremely dated and should be archived. The Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest will address this through a new resolution on sport injury/head injury as these remain relevant.
WHEREAS, the great majority of research studies have found a relationship between televised violence and behaving aggressively, and
WHEREAS, the conclusion drawn on the basis of 25 years of research and a sizable number of experimental and field investigations (NIMH, 1972, 1982) is that viewing televised violence may lead to increases in aggressive attitudes, values, and behavior, particularly in children, and
WHEREAS, many children's programs contain some form of violence,
BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association (1) encourages parents to monitor and to control television viewing by children; (2) requests industry representatives to take a responsible attitude in reducing direct imitable violence on 'real life' fictional children's programming or violent incidents on cartoons, and in providing more programming for children designed to mitigate possible effects of television violence, consistent with the guarantees of the First Amendment; and (3) urges industry, government, and private foundations to support relevant research activities aimed at the amelioration of the effects of high levels of televised violence on children's attitudes and behaviors.
Note: Replaced by 1994 policy on Violence in Mass Media.
1986
AIDS
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: COPA recommends archiving this policy because since its inception, many additional HIV-focused policies have been adopted by APA that are more detailed extensions of the various sentiments expressed in AIDS 1986, and these new policies are more accurately reflective of the state of HIV/AIDS today.
1987
Use of diagnoses "homosexuality" and "ego-dystonic homosexuality"
Adopted by the APA Council of Representatives on August 27 & 30, 1987
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: This policy statement solely speaks to obsolete diagnostics categories which no longer exist in diagnostic and clarification systems. It references ICD-9 and DSM-III-R. Therefore, it seems important to retain in archive but no longer retain as an active policy.
Whereas the American Psychological Association has been on record since 1975 that "homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social and vocational capabilities"; and
Whereas it appears that the ICD-9-CM is widely used either by mandate or choice by many psychologists nationwide in connection with third-party reimbursement, institutional-based service delivery, and research; and
Whereas the next revision of the ICD is not anticipated to be completed until 1992 and may, according to current proposals, then contain the "ego-dystonic homosexuality" diagnosis which APA also opposes; and
Whereas the Council of Representatives already has urged APA members not to use the proposed DSM-III-R diagnoses of Periluteal Phase Disorder, Self-Defeating Personality Disorder, and Sadistic Personality Disorder because they lack adequate scientific basis and are potentially dangerous to women;
Be it resolved that the American Psychological Association: Urge its members not to use the "302.0 Homosexuality" diagnosis in the current ICD-9-CM or the "302.00 Ego-dystonic Homosexuality" diagnosis in the current DSM-III or future editions of either document.
Please cite this policy statement as:
Fox, R.E. (1988). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the year 1987: Minutes of the Annual meeting of the Council of Representatives. American Psychologist, 43, 508-531.
1989
Special education and related services for children with conduct disorders
WHEREAS Congress has mandated that public schools provide special education services to all handicapped children, including those who are seriously emotionally disturbed;
WHEREAS Congress has defined serious emotional disturbance to include unsatisfactory relationships and inappropriate behavior that Interfere with educational performance over a long period of time and to a marked degree;
WHEREAS such characteristics are commonly associated with conduct disorders;
WHEREAS children with diagnoses manifested primarily by troubling behavior, such as conduct disorders and attention deficit disorders, constitute a large proportion of seriously emotionally disturbed children;
WHEREAS special education and related services, Including psychological services, are often critical to seriously emotionally disturbed children's educational progress;
WHEREAS schools are Important components In the child mental health system; and
WHEREAS psychologists provide services to seriously emotionally disturbed children both within and outside school settings;
THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association opposes efforts by some states to exclude conduct disordered children from special education and related services;
BE IF FURTHER RESOLVED that the Association calls upon the Congress a the United States Department of Education to take action to ensure that states do not further deprive seriously emotionally disturbed children of special education and related services, including psychological services, that are Important to their educational achievement and psychological development."
1990
Providers of Psychological Services to Ethnic, Lunguistic and Culturally Diverse Populationsopens in new window (PDF, 131KB)Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2017.
1991
U.S. Department of Defense Policy on Sexual Orientation and Advertising in APA Publications
WHEREAS the American Psychological Association (APA) deplores discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation; and
WHEREAS APA will not let Its publications, as advertising media, be used by others In support of discriminatory employment practices; and
WHEREAS the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) maintains a policy that homosexual orientation Is "Incompatible with military service"; and
WHEREAS the DoD will not knowingly admit bisexual, lesbian or gay Individuals to military service, Including research and clinical internship programs In psychology; and
WHEREAS an average of 1,5W men and women are unfairly discharged from military service each year because their sexual orientation becomes; known;
THEREFORE be it resolved that the APA opposes the DoD policy which finds homosexual orientation "Incompatible with military service"; and
Be it further resolved that APA take a leadership role among national organizations in seeking to change this discriminatory DoD policy, and
Be it further resolved that APA will not permit Its publications, as advertising media, to be used by the DoD after December 31, 1992, unless the DoD policy that homosexual orientation "is incompatible with military service" has been rescinded by that date."
In addition, Council approved the Inclusion of the following statement with all advertisements from the U.S. Military Services:
"Policies of the Department of Defense prohibit military service for individuals of homosexual orientation. Applicants must meet age and physical requirements".
Advertisements include printed announcements In APA publications, mailings using APA mailing lists and literature distributed at APA meetings.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Rendered obsolete by overturn of DOMA — Don’t Ask Don’t Tell.
APA Resolution on Neuropsychological Assessment and HIV Infection
APA resolution on neuropsychological assessment and HIV infection
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in August 2019.
APA Resolution on Legal Liability Related to Confidentiality and the Prevention on HIV Transmission
APA resolution on legal liability related to confidentiality and the prevention on HIV transmission
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in August 2019.
1992
Resolution on Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Youths in Schools
Whereas society's attitudes, behaviors, and tendency to render lesbian, gay and bisexual persons invisible permeate all societal institutions including the family and school system (Gonsiorek, 1988; Hetrick & Martin, 1988; Ponse, 1978; Uribe & Harbeck, 1992);
Whereas it is a presumption that all persons, including those who are lesbian, gay, or bisexual, have the right to equal opportunity within all public educational institutions;
Whereas current literature suggests that some youths are aware of their status as lesbian, gay, or bisexual persons by early adolescence (Remafedi, 1987; Savin-Williams, 1990; Slater, 1988; Troiden, 1988);
Whereas many lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths and youths perceived to belong to these groups face harassment and physical violence in school environments (Freiberg, 1987; Hetrick & Martin, 1988; Remafedi, 1987; Schaecher, 1988; Uribe & Harbeck, 1992; Whitlock, 1988);
Whereas many lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths are at risk for lowered self-esteem and for engaging in self-injurious behaviors, including suicide (Hetrick & Martin, 1988; Gonsiorek, 1988; Savin-Williams, 1990; Harry, 1989; Gibson, 1989);
Whereas gay male and bisexual youths are at an increased risk of HIV infection (Savin-Williams, 1992);
Whereas lesbian, gay and bisexual youths of color have additional challenges to their self-esteem as a result of the negative consequences of discrimination based on both sexual orientation and ethnic/racial minority status (Garnets & Kimmel, 1991);
Whereas lesbian, gay and bisexual youths with physical or mental disabilities are at increased risk due to the negative consequence of societal prejudice toward persons with mental or physical disabilities (Pendler & Hingsburger, 1991; Hingsburger & Griffiths, 1986);
Whereas lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths who are poor or working class may face additional risks (Gordon, Schroeder & Abramo, 1990);
Whereas psychologists affect policies and practices within educational environments;
Whereas psychology promotes the individual's development of personal identity including the sexual orientation of all individuals;
Therefore be it resolved that the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists shall take a leadership role in promoting societal and familial attitudes and behaviors that affirm the dignity and rights, within educational environments, of all lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths, including those with physical or mental disabilities and from all ethnic/racial backgrounds and classes;
Therefore be it resolved that the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists support providing a safe and secure educational atmosphere in which all youths, including lesbian, gay and bisexual youths, may obtain an education free from discrimination, harassment, violence, and abuse, and which promotes an understanding and acceptance of self;
Therefore be it resolved that American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists encourage psychologists to develop and evaluate interventions that foster nondiscriminatory environments, lower risk for HIV infection, and decrease self-injurious behaviors in lesbian, gay and bisexual youths;
Therefore be it resolved that the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists shall advocate efforts to ensure the funding of basic and applied research on and scientific evaluations of interventions and programs designed to address the issues of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths in the schools, and programs for HIV prevention targeted at gay and bisexual youths;
Therefore be it resolved that the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists shall work with other organizations in efforts to accomplish these ends (DeLeon, 1993, p. 782).
References
Freiberg, P. (1987, September). Sex education and the gay issue: What are they teaching about us in the schools? The Advocate, 42-48.
Garnets, L., & Kimmel, D. (1991). Lesbian and gay male dimensions in the psychological study of human diversity. In J. Goodchilds (Ed.), Psychological Perspectives on Human Diversity in America (pp 143-192). Washington, DC, American Psychological Association.
Gonsiorek, J.C. (1988). Mental health issues of gay and lesbian adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Heath Care, 9, 114-122.
Gordon, B.N., Schroeder, C.S., & Abramo, J.M. (1990). Age and social class differences in children's knowledge of sexuality. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19 (1), 33-43.
Gibson, P. (1989). Gay male and lesbian youth suicide. In M. Feinleib, (Ed.), Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Youth Suicide, Washington, DC, Department of Health and Human Services. (Vol. 3, pp 110-142).
Harry, J. (1989). Sexual identity issues. In M. Feinleib, (Ed.), Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Youth Suicide, Vol. 2, pp 131-142. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services. .
Hetrick, E.S., & Martin, A.D. (1988). Developmental issues and their resolution for gay and lesbian adolescents. In E. Coleman (Ed.) Integrated identity for gay men and lesbians: Psychotherapeutic approaches for emotional well-being (pp 25-43). Binghamton, NY: Harrington Park Press.
Hingsburger, D., & Griffiths, D. (1986). Dealing with sexuality in a community residential service. Psychiatric Aspects of Mental Retardation Reviews, 5 (12), 63-67.
Pendler, B., & Hingsburger, D. (1991). Sexuality: Dealing with parents. Sexuality and Disability, 9, 123-130.
Ponse, B. (1978). Identities in the lesbian world: The social construction of the self. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Remafedi, G. (1987). Adolescent homosexuality: Psychosocial and medical implications. Pediatrics. 79, 331-337.
Savin-Williams, R.C. (1990). Gay and lesbian youth: Expressions of identity. New York, NY: Hemisphere.
Schaecher, R. (1988, Winter). Stresses on lesbian and gay adolescents. Independent Schools, 29-35.
Slater, B.R. (1988). Essential issues in working with lesbian and gay male youths. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19, 226-235.
Troiden, R.R. (1988). Gay and lesbian identity: A sociological study. Dix Hills, NY: General Hall.
Uribe, V., & Harbeck, K.M. (1992). Addressing the needs of lesbian, gay and bisexual youth: The origins of PROJECT 10 and school-based intervention. In K. Harbeck (Ed.). Coming out of the classroom closet: Gay and lesbian students, teachers and curriculum (pp. 9-28). Binghamton, NY: Harrington Park Press.
Whitlock, K. (Ed.). (1988). Bridges of Respect: Creating support for lesbian and gay youth. Philadelphia, PA: American Friends Service Committee.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Superseded by the 2014 Resolution on Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Youths in the Schools.
Resolution on the use of psychology to market tobacco productsopens in new window (PDF, 20KB)
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Laws have changed on marketing of tobacco products to youths since the original resolution was written.
Legal access to sterile injection equipment by drug users
Legal Access to Sterile Injection Equipment by Drug Users
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: COPA recommends archiving this policy because information covered in #7: Legal access to sterile injection equipment by drug users (1992) is now incorporated into the following policies: Drug abuse treatment to prevent HIV among injecting drug users (2006) and HIV prevention strategies involving legal access to sterile injection equipment (2005).
Rust v. Sullivan Supreme Court Decision
WHEREAS the American Psychological Association in 1983 determined that... "requiring clinics to provide the same blanket information to every pregnant woman, rather than to provide for each woman whatever information is individually appropriate to her particular needs, is inconsistent with basic principles of effective counseling and will hinder, rather than promote, informed consent."
(APA Amicus Curiae, Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health )
WHEREAS the American Medical Association and other health care provider organizations have already officially decried the hazardous effects of the Rust v. Sullivan Supreme Court Decision upholding the Title X Family Planning Program Regulations, known as the "Gag Rule"; and
WHEREAS the American Psychological Association has already adopted previous policies regarding a woman's right to reproductive choice.
BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association deplores the effects of the Title X regulations which prohibit health providers, including psychologists , who receive federal Title X funds, from informing women patients/clients of the availability of the alternative of abortion to terminate an unwanted pregnancy.
Further, the APA urges the Congress to enact legislation and to override Presidential vetoes, as needed, to both remedy this health hazard and to serve as a precedent to buttress against further erosion of the rights associated with Roe v. Wade.
Further, APA will seek to inform Congress, the public and its own membership of its position and its recommendations through a public affairs and advocacy effort including but not limited to:
press conferences in several major cities
letter writing and mail campaigns
news releases
APA Monitor and other appropriate APA, Division, and State Association publications
Further, we direct the Chief Executive Officer of the American Psychological Association to activate the necessary mechanisms to ensure the accomplishments of the aims and goals of this resolution, including the capacity to respond to ongoing critical reproductive issues by participating in public information/media outreach efforts as necessary to help preserve a woman's right to choose.
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: This is not a policy/resolution.
1993
NIOSH
Council voted to adopt the NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) strategies as policy. Council also voted to request that APA staff encourage NIOSH to give explicit attention to stresses caused by discrimination or exploitative treatment with regard to gender, race, ethnicity, culture, disability, sexual orientation, age, and religion across all four strategies. Moreover, Council calls attention to the home as a workplace and notes the need for research in this area.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: "NIOSH strategies" are not articulated in the policy and would most likely be outdated after 22 years.
1994
On the recommendation of the Board of Directors and the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest, Council voted to adopt the following resolution, as amended, as APA policy, replacing the 1985 resolution on television violence:
Whereas the consequences of aggressive and violent behavior have brought human suffering, lost lives, and economic hardship to our society as well as an atmosphere of anxiety, fear, and mistrust;
Whereas in recent years the level of violence in American society and the level of violence portrayed in television, film, and video have escalated markedly;
Whereas the great majority of research studies have found a relation between viewing mass media violence and behaving aggressively;
Whereas the conclusion drawn on the basis of over 30 years of research and a sizeable number of experimental and field investigations (Huston, et al., 1992; NIMH, 1982; Surgeon General, 1972) is that viewing mass media violence leads to increases in aggressive attitudes, values, and behavior, particularly in children, and has a long-lasting effect on behavior and personality, including criminal behavior;
Whereas viewing violence desensitizes the viewer to violence, resulting in calloused attitudes regarding violence toward others and a decreased likelihood to take action on behalf of a victim when violence occurs;
Whereas viewing violence increases viewers' tendencies for becoming involved with or exposing themselves to violence;
Whereas viewing violence increases fear of becoming a victim of violence, with a resultant increase in self-protective behaviors and mistrust of others;
Whereas many children's television programs and films contain some form of violence, and children's access to adult-oriented media violence is increasing as a result of new technological advances;
Therefore be it resolved that the American Psychological Association:
urges psychologists to inform the television and film industry personnel who are responsible for violent programming, their commercial advertisers, legislators, and the general public that viewing violence in the media produces aggressive and violent behavior in children who are susceptible to such effects;
encourages parents and other child care providers to monitor and supervise television, video, and film viewing by children;
supports the inclusion of clear and easy-to-use warning labels for violent material in television, video, and film programs to enable viewers to make informed choices;
supports the development of technologies that empower viewers to prevent the broadcast of violent material in their homes;
supports the development, implementation, and evaluation of school-based programs to educate children and youth regarding means for critically viewing, processing, and evaluating video and film portrayals of both aggressive and prosocial behaviors;
requests the television and film industry to reduce direct violence in "real life" fictional children's programming or violent incidents in cartoons and other television or film productions, and to provide more programming designed to mitigate possible effects of television and film violence, consistent with the guarantees of the First Amendment;
urges the television and film industry to foster programming that models prosocial behaviors and seeks to resolve the problem of violence in society;
offers to the television and film industry assistance in developing programs that illustrate psychological methods to control aggressive and violent behavior, and alternative strategies for dealing with conflict and anger;
supports revision of the Film Rating System to take into account violence content that is harmful to children and youth;
urges industry, government, and private foundations to develop and implement programs to enhance the critical viewing skills of teachers, parents, and children regarding media violence and how to prevent its negative effects;
recommends that the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) review, as a condition for license renewal, the programming and outreach efforts and accomplishments of television stations in helping to solve the problem of youth violence;
urges industry, government, and private foundations to support research activities aimed at the amelioration of the effects of high levels of mass media violence on children's attitudes and behavior (DeLeon, 1995).
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Outdated due to changes in film ratings, ability to block media from home devices, etc., and does not address issues that have arisen with the advent of the Internet and social media.
WHEREAS the American Psychological Association recognizes that the family constitutes a basic unit of society; and
WHEREAS the United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed 1994 as the International Year of the Family (IYF) with its theme: "Family--Resources and Responsibilities in a Changing World"; and
WHEREAS the activities for the observation of IYF will be concentrated at the local, national, regional, and international levels with primary focus at the local and national levels; and
WHEREAS the IYF encompasses and addresses the needs of all families recognizing the diversity of families; and
WHEREAS activities for IYF seek to promote human rights and fundamental freedoms for all individuals as set forth by United Nations instruments, whatever the status of each individual and the conditions within a given family; and
WHEREAS IYF policies aim at promoting inherent strengths of families; and
WHEREAS IYF programs support families in the discharge of their functions;
NOW, THEREFORE the American Psychological Association does hereby resolve to join International Year of the Family and asks the Board of Convention Affairs and all directorates of the Association to consider appropriate program initiatives for the 1994 APA convention.
Note: Out of date.
Firearm Safety and Youth
WHEREAS the American Psychological Association deplores the increase in violence and its negative effects on children and youth who are victims, perpetrators, bystanders, and witnesses of violent incidents;
WHEREAS the negative effects of violence extend to indirect victims whose lives are affected by losses, anxiety, and terror even if they do not have firsthand experience with violent incidents;
WHEREAS the psychological research on factors that contribute to human aggression indicates that exposure and access to guns can result in an increased likelihood of aggression;
WHEREAS access to firearms as well as their presence and use fosters anxieties, fears, distrust, and suspicion among people;
WHEREAS access to and use of firearms by young people is associated with increased rates of suicide, homicide, and injury among children and youth;
WHEREAS the presence of firearms markedly increases the probability of fatality and severe injury in interpersonal violence;
WHEREAS access to firearms by children and youth contributes to unintentional injury and death;
WHEREAS children's exposure to the consequences of firearm injury and death is associated with increased symptoms of fear, anxiety, depression, and stress;
RESOLVED, that the American Psychological Association:
1. Supports nationwide licensing of firearm ownership based on attainment of legal voting age; clearance following a criminal record background check; and demonstrated skill in firearm knowledge, use, and safety;
2. Encourages federal, state, and local governments to increase specific legal, regulatory, and enforcement efforts to reduce widespread, easy, and unsupervised access to firearms by children and youth;
3. Supports the development, implementation, and evaluation of school-based programs to educate children and youth regarding the prevention of firearm violence and the reduction of both unintentional and intentional death and injury caused by firearms.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2014. Note: out of date.
1996
Resolution on Sexuality Education
Passed by APA Council of Representatives 1996
Whereas American youth are exhibiting behavior leading to increasing rates of life-threatening or health-compromising sexually transmitted diseases that in part reflect ignorance of sexual health promoting behaviors (National Guidelines Task Force, 1991);
Whereas youth infection with HIV/AIDS has reached an epidemic level, particularly among young gay men and ethnic minority youth (National Commission on AIDS, 1993), in part because of lack of knowledge and lack of training about protective behaviors;
Whereas children are becoming involved in sexual activities at younger ages (Ravoira & Cherry, 1992; Singh & Wulf, 1990);
Whereas over one million teenage women become pregnant annually (National Guidelines Task Force, 1991) and approximately 300,000 of these teenagers become homeless or runaways or both (Ravoira & Cherry, 1992);
Whereas the prevalence of sexual intercourse appears to be higher among youth who did not receive sexuality education (Furstenberg & Crawford, 1986);
Whereas youth whose sexual orientation or whose values, beliefs, and practices differ from those deemed acceptable by many in our society are subject to persistent, subtle, or overt harassment and violence which may lead to suicide (Schaecher, 1988);
Whereas youth with a physical or mental disability may be more vulnerable to sexual coercion;
Whereas stranger rape, date rape, sexual abuse, and other forms of sexual violence are traumatic events that have become increasingly prevalent (Koss et al., 1994);
Whereas sexual health, personal self-esteem, and the ability to participate in responsible, caring, and stable relationships, as well as to develop positive interpersonal social attitudes can be promoted through education (Gordon & Schroeder, 1995);
Whereas the American Psychological Association has a necessary and important role in influencing public policy to the benefit and protection of youth in particular and the society in general;
Resolution
Therefore be it resolved that the APA supports access to information on sexuality as critical to healthy development. Such information should be positive, age appropriate, and culturally suitable, and should respect the choice of abstinence; it should acknowledge women's rights, should foster shared responsibility among males and females for sexual behaviors, and should promote tolerance for sexual diversity; and
Therefore be it resolved that APA public policy support the development and adoption, including research and evaluation, of such comprehensive sexuality education curricula and programs for the promotion of healthy sexual attitudes and behaviors and the prevention and mitigation of endangering and destructive behaviors. It is to be noted that this resolution does not endorse any particular curriculum, procedure, or site for instruction[, but seeks to promote a choice of means for implementing this resolution]. (February 1996)
References
Furstenberg, F. & Crawford, A. (1986). Teenage sexuality, pregnancy, and child welfare. In J. Laird & A. Hartman (Eds.), Handbook of child welfare: Context, knowledge, and practice. New York: Free Press.
Gordon, B.B. & Schroeder, C. (1995). Sexuality. New York: Plenum.
Koss, M.P., Goodman, L.A., Browne, A., Fitzgerald, L.F., Keita, G.P., & Russo, N.F. (1994). No safe haven: Male violence against women at home, at work, and in the community. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
National Commission on AIDS. (1993). Behavioral and social sciences and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Washington, DC: Author.
National Guidelines Task Force. (1991). Guidelines for comprehensive sexuality education: Kindergarten-12th grade. New York: Sex Information and Education Council of the U.S.
Ravoira, LaW. & Cherry, A. (1992). Social bonds and teen pregnancy. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishing Co.
Schaecher, R. (1988). Stresses on lesbian and gay adolescents. Independent Schools, 29-35.
Singh, S. & Wulf, D. (1990). Today's adolescent, tomorrow's parent: A portrait of the Americas. N.Y.: Alan Guttmacher Institute.
1998
Proposed APA Policy Statement on Legal Benefits for Same-Sex Couples
WHEREAS there is evidence that homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social and vocational capabilities (Conger, 1975) for individuals;
WHEREAS legislation, other public policy, and private policy on issues related to same-sex couples is currently under development in many places in North America (e.g., Canadian Psychological Association, 1996);
WHEREAS the scientific literature has found no significant difference between different-sex couples and same-sex couples that justify discrimination (Kurdek, 1994;1983; Peplau, 1991);
WHEREAS scientific research has not found significant psychological or emotional differences between the children raised in different-sex versus same-sex households (Patterson, 1994);
WHEREAS APA has, as a long established policy, deplored "all public and private discrimination against gay men and lesbians in such areas as employment, housing, administration, and licensing ..." and has consistently urged "the repeal of all discriminatory legislation against lesbians and gay men" (Conger, 1975);
WHEREAS denying the legal benefits that the license of marriage offers to same-sex households (including, but not limited to, property rights, health care decision-making, estate planning, tax consequences, spousal privileges in medical emergency situations and co-parental adoption of children) cannot be justified as fair and equal treatment;
WHEREAS the absence of access to these benefits constitutes a significant psychosocial stressor for lesbians, gay men, and their families.
WHEREAS APA provides benefits to its members' and employees' domestic partners equivalent to those provided to members' and employees' spouses;
WHEREAS psychological knowledge can be used to inform the current public and legal debate on "same-sex marriage" (e.g., Baehr v. Levin);
THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that APA supports the provision to same-sex couples of the legal benefits that typically accrue as a result of marriage to same-sex couples who desire and seek the legal benefits; and
THEREFORE BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA shall provide relevant psychological knowledge to inform the public discussion in this area and assist state psychological associations and divisions in offering such information as needed.
References
Canadian Psychological Association. (1996). Policy statement on equality for lesbians, gay men, and their relationships and families. [Available from the Canadian Psychological Association.]
Conger, J.J. (1975). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the year 1974: Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Council of Representatives. American Psychologist, 30, 620-651.
Kurdek, L.A. (1993). The nature and correlates of relationship quality in gay, lesbian, and heterosexual cohabiting couples: A test of the individual difference, interdependence, and discrepancy models. In B. Greene & G.M. Herek (Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical issues (pp. 133-155). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Patterson, C.J. (1993). Children of the lesbian baby boom: Behavioral adjustment, self-concepts, and sex role theory. In B. Greene & G.M. Herek (Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical issues (pp. 156-175). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Peplau. A.L. (1991). Lesbian and gay relationships. In J.C. Gonsiorek and J.D. Weinrich (Eds.), Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy (pp. 177-196). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: This resolution has been superseded by the 2011 Resolution on Marriage Equality for Same-Sex Couples.
1999
Whereas the United Nations has designated 1999 as the International Year of Older Persons;
Whereas this segment of the population is increasing more rapidly than any other worldwide;
Whereas the needs of this segment are often ignored or neglected;
Whereas the membership of this Association affirms the dignity of all persons through the Association statement of mission and its principles of ethical behavior;
Whereas the Association, through actions of its Council of Representatives, has consistently underscored the worth and dignity of all persons;
Whereas the Association members manifest this earnest commitment to promoting healthy aging in the worlds population;
Whereas the Association has established a Standing Committee on Aging to focus on and address these issues;
Therefore, be it Resolved, that the American Psychological Association commends the United Nations for directing world attention to this issue through designating 1999 as the International Year of Older Persons and affirms the United Nations Principles for Older Persons.
Note: Outdated policy developed based on a political event/incident that has passed.
WHEREAS the United Nations has designated the year 2000 as The International Year for the Culture of Peace;
WHEREAS Culture of Peace refers to promoting human welfare within communities, and has been defined by the UN along the lines of the following eight (8) principles: respect for human rights, tolerance, democracy, free flow of information, non-violence, sustainable development, peace education, and equality of men and women;
WHEREAS the membership of this Association seeks to promote human welfare and mental health;
THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association endorses the declaration of the Year 2000 as The International Year for the Culture of Peace.
Note: Outdated policy developed based on a political event/incident that has passed.
2000
Resolution on Poverty and Socioeconomic Status
Whereas the income gap between the poor and the rich has continued to increase, with the average income of the poorest fifth of the population down 6% and the average income of the top fifth up 30% over the past 20 years (Bernstein, McNichol, Mishel, & Zahradnik, 2000);
Whereas the poverty rate in the United States is higher now than in nearly all years of the 1970s, child poverty (at 18.9% in 1998, representing 13.5 million children) continues to be higher here than in most other industrialized nations, and the proportion of the population living below the poverty line in 1998 was 12.7% (representing 34.5 million people) (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 1999; U.S. Census Bureau, 1999);
Whereas although Whites represented the largest single group among the poor in 1998, ethnic groups were overrepresented, with 26.1% of African Americans, 25.6% of Hispanics, 12.5% of Asians and Pacific Islanders, and 31% of American Indians on reservations living in poverty (National Congress of American Indians, 2000; U.S. Census Bureau, 1999), compared with the 8.2% of Whites who were poor;
Whereas families* with a female head of household had a poverty rate of 29.9% in 1998 and comprised the majority of poor families (U.S. Census Bureau, 1999);
Whereas the Task Force on Women, Poverty, and Public Assistance of the APA Society of the Psychology of Women (Division 35) has documented from the social sciences research literature the root causes of poverty and its impact for poor women, children, and their families, and called for a more effective public policy founded on this research base (Division 35 Task Force on Women, Poverty, and Public Assistance, 1998);
Whereas poverty is detrimental to psychological well-being, with NIMH data indicating that low-income individuals are 2 to 5 times more likely to suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder than those of the highest SES group (Bourdon, Rae, Narrow, Manderschild, & Regier, 1994; Regier et al., 1993), and poverty poses a significant obstacle to getting help for these mental health problems (McGrath, Keita, Strickland, & Russo, 1990);
Whereas accumulating research evidence indicates that the greater the income gap between the poorest and the wealthiest in a society, the higher the death rates for infants and adults and the lower the life expectancy for all members of that society, regardless of SES (Kawachi & Kennedy, 1997);
Whereas the impact of poverty on young children is significant and long lasting, limiting chances of moving out of poverty (McLoyd, 1998), poverty is associated with substandard housing, homelessness, inadequate child care, unsafe neighborhoods, and underresourced schools (Fairchild, 1984; Lott & Bullock, in press), and poor children are at greater risk than higher income children for a range of problems, including detrimental affects on IQ, poor academic achievement, poor socioemotional functioning, developmental delays, behavioral problems, asthma, poor nutrition, low birth weight, and pneumonia (Geltman, Meyers, Greenberg, & Zuckerman, 1996; McLoyd, 1998; Parker, Greer, & Zuckerman, 1988);
Whereas environmental factors such as environmental contaminants (e.g., lead paint, etc.), crowding, substandard housing, lack of potable water, and so forth have detrimental effects on mental and physical development that perpetuate and contribute to poverty;
Whereas low socioeconomic status is associated in women with higher mortality rates and with osteoarthritis, hypertension, cervical cancer, coronary heart disease, AIDS/HIV infection, and other chronic health conditions (Adler & Coriell, 1997), and poor women are sicker and more likely to have disabilities than their nonpoor counterparts, limiting their employment options and straining their financial resources (Falik & Collins, 1996; Olson & Pavetti, 1997);
Whereas men living in poverty are at high risk of violence (Reiss & Roth, 1993) and women living in poverty are at high risk of all types of violence, including sexual abuse as children, with researchers documenting reports by two thirds of poor mothers of severe violence at the hands of a childhood caretaker and by 42% of child sexual molestation (Browne & Bassuk, 1997), as well as severe and life threatening assaults as adults (Bassuk, Browne, & Buckner, 1996; Brooks & Buckner, 1996; Colten & Allard, 1997; Roper & Weeks, 1993), which presents obstacles to work and self-sufficiency (NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund, 1997; Raphael, 1996);
Whereas lack of affordable health insurance, including mental health and substance abuse coverage, impedes health and well-being, and poor women are over 3 times as likely as higher income women to be uninsured: 36% versus 11%, respectively (National Center for Health Statistics, 1995);
Whereas children of teenage pregnancy and single motherhood are at high risk for a life of poverty, and birth control is not covered by health insurance plans for a significant number of women;
Whereas older adults often live on limited retirement incomes, have limited prospects for future earnings, and frequently face overwhelming health care costs; 13% of older women and 20% of older persons living alone or with nonrelatives in 1998 lived on incomes below the poverty level; and 49% of older African American women living alone lived in poverty in 1998 (U.S. Census Bureau, 1999, cited in U.S. Administration on Aging, 1999);
Whereas lower socioeconomic status among older adults is associated with higher rates of medical and psychological disorders, poor older adults have poorer access to medical care, prescription medications, long-term care, and community-based care (Estes, 1995), and Medicare funds mental health care at a lower rate than medical care, and this further limits the access for older adults in poverty to mental health and substance abuse services;
Whereas migrant families are by the nature of their work and life circumstances poorly served by health and mental health professionals (Portes & Rumbaut, 1996; Wilk, 1986);
Whereas undocumented immigrants are vulnerable to legal actions that inhibit their access to health and mental health services, compounding issues of poverty and limited English language proficiency (Olivera, Effland, & Hamm, 1993);
Whereas research focused on low-income groups including immigrants, ethnic minorities, minimum wage workers, families receiving public assistance, the homeless, migrant workers, and older women is limited;
Whereas low-income groups are the targets of discrimination based on their socioeconomic status as well as other social indicators such as race/ethnicity and gender (Lott, in press);
Whereas perceptions of the poor and of welfare – by those not in those circumstances -- tend to reflect attitudes and stereotypes that attribute poverty to personal failings rather than socioeconomic structures and systems and that ignore strengths and competencies in these groups (Ehrenreich, 1987; Katz, 1989; Quadagno, 1994), and public policy and anti-poverty programs continue to reflect these stereotypes (Bullock, 1995; Furnham, 1993; Furnham & Gunter, 1984; Rubin & Peplau, 1975);
Whereas programs that ensure that poor individuals and families have basic needs met are important in addressing the impact of poverty;
Whereas ethnic strife and war disrupt the economic, public health, and social systems comprising the safety net that helps ensure basic needs are met;
Whereas psychologists as researchers, service providers, educators, and policy advocates have a responsibility to better understand the causes of poverty and its impact on health and mental health, to help prevent and reduce the prevalence of poverty and to effectively treat and address the needs of low-income individuals and families by building on the strengths of communities;
Whereas psychologists are ethically guided to "respect the fundamental rights, dignity, and worth of all people" (American Psychological Association, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, 1992);
Whereas "psychologists are aware of their professional and scientific responsibilities to the community and the society in which they work and live" (American Psychological Association, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, 1992);
Therefore be it resolved that the American Psychological Association:
Will advocate for more research that examines the causes and impact of poverty, economic disparity, and related issues such as socioeconomic status, classism, ageism, unintended pregnancy, environmental factors, ethnic strife and war, stereotypes, the stigma and feelings of shame associated with poverty, and mental and physical health problems, including depression, substance abuse, intimate violence, child sexual abuse, and elder abuse, as well as advocate for the broader dissemination of these research findings.
Will advocate for more research on prejudicial and negative attitudes toward the poor by other persons who may individually or collectively perpetuate policies that tolerate poverty and social inequality.
Will advocate for more research on special populations who are poor (women and children, immigrants, undocumented immigrants, migrants, ethnic minorities, older people, people with disabilities and other chronic health conditions such as AIDS/HIV infection, and rural and urban populations).
Will advocate for research that identifies and learns from indigenous efforts by low-income people to work together to solve personal and shared problems or create organizations that advocate effectively for social justice.
Will recommend that where possible and appropriate socioeconomic status be identified for published reports of social sciences research.
Will advocate for incorporating evaluation and assessment tools and for encouraging integrative approaches such as the building of public and private community partnerships in programs addressing the issue of poverty and the poor, which psychological research has identified as effective strategies for addressing community level issues and problems.
Will encourage in psychological graduate and postgraduate education and training curricula more attention to the causes and impact of poverty, to the psychological needs of poor individuals and families, and to the importance of developing "cultural competence" and sensitivity to diversity around issues of poverty in order to be able to help prevent and reduce the prevalence of poverty and to treat and address the needs of low-income clients.
Will support public policy that encourages access for all children to high-quality early childhood education and a high-quality public school education, better equipping individuals for self-sufficiency.
Will support public policy that ensures access to postsecondary education and training that allows working families to earn a self-sufficient wage to meet their family’s needs.
Will support public policy and programs that ensure adequate income, access to sufficient food and nutrition, and affordable and safe housing for poor people and all working families.
Will support public policy that ensures access to family-friendly jobs offering good quality health insurance, including coverage for comprehensive family planning, mental health and substance abuse services, flexible work schedules, and sufficient family and medical leave.
Will support public policy that ensures access to comprehensive family planning in private and public health insurance coverage.
Will support public policy that ensures parity with medical coverage for mental health and substance abuse services under Medicare and Medicaid and ensures for all individuals, regardless of ability to pay, access to health care and mental health and substance abuse treatment that is comprehensive and culturally sensitive, that accommodates the needs of the children of parents seeking treatment, and that addresses the special needs of older adults in poverty, including prescriptions and long-term care.
Will support public policy that encourages access for all children to high-quality early health care.
Will support public policy that ensures for all working families access to affordable, high-quality child care, which is available year round, for the full day, and for all work shifts, as well as before- and after-school care.
Will support public policy that provides early intervention and prevention for vulnerable children and families that enhance parenting, education, and community life so that children can develop the necessary competencies to move out of poverty.
Will support public policy that provides early interventions and prevention for vulnerable children and families that are strengths-based, community-based, flexible, sensitive to culture and ethnic values of the family, and that have a long-lasting impact.
*The word family should be understood to incorporate the functions of family members rather than their biological sex or sexual orientation, for example, lesbian heads of household.
References
Adler, N.E., & Coriell, M. (1997). Socioeconomic status and women’s health. In S.J. Gallant, G.P. Keita, & R. Royak-Schaler (Eds.), Health care for women: Psychological, social, and behavioral influences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
American Psychological Association. (1992). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. (1992). American Psychologist, 47, 1597-1611.
Bassuk, E.L., Browne, A., & Buckner, J.C. (1996, August 28). The characteristics and needs of sheltered homeless and low-income housed mothers. Journal of the American Medical Association, 276, 640-646.
Bernstein, J., McNichol, E.C., Mishel, L., Zahradnik, R. (2000, January). Pulling apart: A state-by-state analysis of income trends. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities/Economic Policy Institute.
Bourdon, K.H., Rae, D.S., Narrow, W.E., Manderschild, R. W., & Regier, D.A. (1994). National prevalence and treatment of mental and addictive disorders. In R. W. Mandershild & A. Sonnenschein (Eds.), Mental health: United States (pp. 22-51). Washington, D.C.: Center for Mental Health Services.
Brooks, M. G., & Buckner, J. C. (1996). Work and welfare: Job histories, barriers to employment, and predictors of work among low-income single mothers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, 526-537.
Browne, A., & Bassuk, S.S. (1997). Intimate violence in the lives of homeless and poor house women: Prevalence and patterns in an ethnically diverse sample. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67(2), 261-278.
Bullock, H. E. (1995). Class acts: Middle-class responses to the poor. In B. Lott & D. Maluso (Eds.), The social psychology of interpersonal discrimination (pp. 118-159). New York: Guilford.
Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. (1999). Low unemployment, rising wages fuel poverty decline. Washington, D.C.: Author.
Colten, M. E., & Allard, M. A. (1997). In harm’s way? Domestic violence, AFDC receipt and welfare reform in Massachusetts. Boston: University of Massachusetts Center for Social Policy Research.
Division 35 Task Force on Women, Poverty, and Public Assistance, APA Division of the Psychology of Women. (1998). Making welfare to work really work. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. (Available from https://www.apa.org/pi/wpo/welftowork.html)
Ehrenreich, B. (1987). The new right attack on welfare. In F. Block, R. A. Cloward, B. Ehrenreich, & F. F. Piven, The mean season: The attack on the welfare state (pp. 161-195). New York: Pantheon Books.
Estes, C. (1995). Mental health issues for the elderly: Key policy elements. In M. Gatz (Ed.), Emerging issues in mental health and aging (pp. 303-327). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Fairchild, H. (1984). School size, per-pupil expenditures, and academic achievement. Review of Public Data Use, 12, 221-229.
Falik, M. M., & Collins, K S. (1996). Women’s health: The Commonwealth Fund Survey. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Furnham, A. (1993). Just world beliefs in twelve societies. Journal of Social Psychology, 133(3), 317-329.
Furnham, A., & Gunter, B. (1984). Just world beliefs and attitudes towards the poor. British Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 265-269.
Geltman, P.L., Meyers, A.F., Greenberg, J., & Zuckerman, B. (1996, Spring). Commentary: Welfare reform and children’s health. Washington, D.C.: Center for Health Policy Research.
Katz, M.B. (1989). The undeserving poor: From the war on poverty to the war on welfare. New York: Pantheon Books.
Kawachi, I., & Kennedy, B.P. (1997, April 5). Socioeconomic determinants of health: Health and social cohesion: Why care about income inequality? British Medical Journal, 314, 1037.
Lott, B. (in press). Low income parents and the public schools. Journal of Social Issues.
Lott, B., & Bullock, H. E. (in press). Who are the poor? Journal of Social Issues.
McGrath, E., Keita, G.P., Strickland, B.R., & Russo, N.F. (1990). Women and depression: Risk factors and treatment issues. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 185-204.
National Center for Health Statistics. (1995). Health: United States. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Public Health Service.
National Congress of American Indians. (2000). Economic development. Washington, D.C.: Author.
NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund (1997, March). Report from the front lines: The impact of violence on poor women. New York: Author.
Olivera, V., Effland, J.R., & Hamm, S. (1993). Hired farm labor use on fruit, vegetable, and horticultural specialty farms. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.
Olson, K., & Pavetti, L. (1997). Personal and family challenges to the successful transition from welfare to work. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
Parker, S., Greer, S., & Zuckerman, B. (1988). Double jeopardy: The impact of poverty on early childhood development. Pediatric Clinician, North America, 35, 1227-1240.
Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. G. (1996). Immigrant America: A portrait (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Quadagno, J. (1994). The color of welfare: How racism undermined the war on poverty. New York: Oxford University Press.
Raphael, J. (1996). Prisoners of abuse: Policy implications of the relationship between domestic violence and welfare receipt. Clearinghouse Review, 30, 186-194.
Regier, D. A., Farmer, M. E., Rae, D. S., Myers, J. K., Kramer, M., Robins, L. N., George, L. K., Karno, M., & Locke, B. Z. (1993). One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States and sociodemographic characteristics: The epidemiologic catchment area study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 88, 35-47.
Reiss, A. J., Jr., & Roth, J. A. (Eds.). (1993). Understanding and preventing violence. Washington, D.C.: National Research Council.
Roper, P., & Weeks, G. (1993). Over half of the women on public assistance in Washington reported physical and sexual abuse as adults. Seattle: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.
Rubin, Z., & Peplau, L. (1975). Who believes in a just world? Journal of Social Issues, 31(3), 65-89.
U.S. Administration on Aging. (1999). Profile of older Americans: 1999. Washington, D.C.: Author.
U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce. (1999, September). Poverty in the United States: Current population reports: Consumer income. Washington, D.C.: Author.
Wilk, V. A. (1986). The occupational health of migrant and seasonal farm workers in the United States (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Farm Worker Justice Fund, Inc.
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2022.
2001
APA Resolution on Assisted Suicide
Whereas the issue of assisted suicide is complex, involving areas of ethics, religion, medicine, psychology, sociology, economics, the law, public policy, and other fields; and
Whereas in the United States there is significant social stratification related to cultural, ethnic, economic, gender, and religious differences; and
Whereas these differences in our society are associated with an equally diverse range of views regarding assisted suicide; and
Whereas in the United States decisions about assisted suicide are made in the context of serious social inequities in access to resources such as basic medical care; and
Whereas autonomy is an important guiding principle in the law and in psychological and medical aspects of decision-making, but in and of itself is insufficient to capture the full range of complex medical, familial, social, financial, psychological, cultural, spiritual, and legal issues involved in the practice of assisted suicide; and
Whereas there is increasing public support for assisted suicide, but this support is weakest among groups who express concerns about being pressured to die (i.e., older adults, people with less education, women, and ethnic minorities) (Blendon, Szalay, & Knox, 1992); and
Whereas reasonable, well-informed people starting from different positions about costs and gains associated with assisted suicide disagree about the potential effects of legalizing the practice; and
Whereas people with different values and priorities can reach different conclusions about the advisability of assisted suicide; and
Whereas some evidence suggests that there are fluctuations in the will to live (Chochinov, Tataryn, Clinch, & Dudgeon, 1999) and in wishes regarding life-sustaining treatments (Weisman, Haas, & Fowler, 1999); and
Whereas pain and clinical depression are frequently under-treated, which can lead to suffering that may result in requests for assisted suicide (Foley, 1995); and
Whereas evidence suggests that some people rescind their requests for assisted suicide when they receive more aggressive and comprehensive care (Ganzini et al., 2000); and
Whereas psychological, familial, social, and financial factors seem to be more important than physical factors in requests for assisted suicide (Breitbart, Rosenfeld, & Passik, 1996; Emanuel, Fairclough, Slutsman, & Emanuel, 2000; Sullivan, Hedberg, & Fleming, 2000); and
Whereas little empirical data exist to determine the effects of assisted suicide on survivors and on society (Cooke et al., 1998); and
Whereas the empirical database, legal developments, and policy discourse related to assisted suicide are evolving rapidly;
Therefore, be it resolved that the American Psychological Association take a position that neither endorses nor opposes assisted suicide at this time.
However,
Given that psychologists have many areas of competence, including assessment, counseling, teaching, consultation, research, and advocacy skills that could potentially enlighten the discourse about assisted suicide, end-of-life treatment, and support for dying persons and their significant others; and
Given that psychologists could be instrumental in helping health care providers to understand and cope with the concerns and needs of dying individuals and their families; and
Given that practicing psychologists may receive requests to be involved in the education of various groups regarding assisted suicide; and
Given that there is one state in which assisted suicide is legal and psychological or psychiatric assessment and consultation is required under certain circumstances; and
Given that practicing psychologists may be part of multidisciplinary end-of-life care teams including ones exploring requests for assisted suicide;
Let it be further resolved that the American Psychological Association will assist in preparing the profession to address the issue of assisted suicide by taking the following actions:
Advocate for quality end-of-life care for all individuals; and
Encourage and promote the development of research on assisted suicide; and
Monitor legal, policy, and research developments that may require or encourage psychologists to involve themselves in assisted suicide cases; and
Promote policies that reduce suffering that could lead to requests for assisted suicide; and
Promote psychologists' involvement in research on ethical dilemmas faced by clinicians and researchers dealing with issues related to assisted suicide; and
Promote psychologists' participation in multidisciplinary teams and ethics committees involved with reviewing end-of-life requests; and
Encourage psychologists to obtain training in the area of ethics as it applies to end-of-life decisions and care; and
Encourage practicing psychologists to inform themselves about criminal and civil laws that have bearing on assisted suicide in the states in which they practice; and
Encourage practicing psychologists to recognize the powerful influence they may have with clients who are considering assisted suicide; and
Encourage psychologists to identify factors leading to assisted suicide requests (including clinical depression, levels of pain and suffering, adequacy of comfort care, and other internal and external variables) and to fully explore alternative interventions (including hospice/palliative care, and other end-of-life options such as voluntarily stopping eating and drinking) for clients considering assisted suicide; and
Encourage practicing psychologists to be aware of their own views about assisted suicide, including recognizing possible biases about entitlement to resources based on disability status, age, sex, sexual orientation, or ethnicity of the client requesting assisted suicide; and
Encourage psychologists to be especially sensitive to the social and cultural biases which may result in some groups and individuals being perceived by others, and/or being encouraged to perceive themselves, as more expendable and less deserving of continued life (e.g., people with disabilities, women, older adults, people of color, gay men, lesbians, bisexual people, transgendered individuals, and persons who are poor).
References
Blendon, R. J., Szalay, U. S., & Knox, R. A. (1992). Should physicians aid their patients in dying? The public perspective. Journal of the American Medical Association, 267, 2658-2662.
Breitbart, W., Rosenfeld, B. D., & Passik, S. D. (1996). Interest in physician-assisted suicide among ambulatory HIV infected patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 238-242.
Chochinov, H. M., Tataryn, D., Clinch, J. J., & Dudgeon, D. (1999). Will to live in the terminally ill. Lancet, 354, 816-819.
Cooke, M., Gourlay, L., Collette, L., Boccellari, A., Chesney, M. A., & Folkman, S. (1998). Informal care givers and the intention to hasten AIDS-related death. Archives of Internal Medicine, 158, 69-75.
Emanuel, E. J., Fairclough, D. L., Slutsman, J., & Emanuel, L. L. (2000). Understanding economic and other burdens of terminal illness: The experience of patients and their caregivers. Annals of Internal Medicine, 132, 451-459.
Foley, K. M. (1995). Pain, physician-assisted suicide, and euthanasia. Pain Forum, 4, 163-178.
Ganzini, L., Nelson, H. D., Schmidt, T. A., Kraemer, D. F., Delorit, M. A., & Lee, M. A. (2000). Physicians' experiences with the Oregon Death with Dignity Act. New England Journal of Medicine, 342, 557-563.
Sullivan, A. D., Hedberg, K., & Fleming, D. W. (2000). Legalized physician-assisted suicide in Oregon -- The second year. New England Journal of Medicine, 342, 598-604.
Weisman, J. S., Haas, J. S., & Fowler, F. J. (1999). The stability of preferences for life sustaining care among persons with AIDS in the Boston Health Study. Medical Decision Making, 19, 16-26.
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in August 2017. Rationale: This policy is superseded as amended by the 2017 Resolution on Assisted Dying adopted by the APA Council of Representatives in August 2017.
APA Resolution on End-of-Life Issues and Care
Whereas the nature of dying and death has changed across the twentieth century, occurring primarily in an institutional setting rather than at home (Benoliel & Degner, 1995); and
Whereas death has become more frequently the result of chronic illness (Battin, 1996); and
Whereas medicine and technology have evolved to the point where the terminal period can be significantly prolonged (Field & Cassel, 1997); and
Whereas there are many more people living longer with terminal diagnoses and thus having more time to make end-of-life decisions; and
Whereas end-of-life decision-making is complex, involving areas of ethics, religion, medicine, psychology, sociology, economics, the law, public policy, and other fields; and
Whereas the population of the United States is aging, resulting in larger numbers of people who may request psychological support in making end-of-life decisions; and
Whereas in the United States there is significant social stratification related to cultural, ethnic, economic, gender, and religious differences; and
Whereas this diversity in our society leads to an equally diverse range of views regarding end-of-life care and decisions;
Whereas reasonable, well-informed people starting from different values and priorities concerning what is valuable at the end of life can and do hold different positions regarding end-of-life care and decisions; and
Whereas autonomy is an important guiding principle in the law and in medical, ethical, and psychological aspects of decision-making, but in and of itself is insufficient to capture the full range of complex medical, familial, social, financial, psychological, cultural, spiritual, and legal issues involved in end-of-life decision-making; and
Whereas there is increasing public support for control over end-of-life decisions but this support is weakest among groups who express concerns about being pressured to die (i.e., older adults, people with less education, women, and ethnic minorities) (Blendon, Szalay, & Knox, 1992); and
Whereas in the United States medical end-of-life decisions are made in a context of serious social inequities in access to resources such as basic medical care; and
Whereas some evidence suggests that there are fluctuations in the will to live (Chochinov, Tataryn, Clinch, & Dudgeon, 1999) and in wishes regarding life-sustaining treatments (Weisman, Haas, & Fowler, 1999); and
Whereas pain and clinical depression are frequently under-treated, which can lead to suffering that may result in requests for, or assent to, medical interventions that affect the timing of death (Foley, 1995); and
Whereas more people are aware of the possible benefits to be gained by using psychological services to help them make end-of-life decisions; and
Whereas psychology has been largely invisible in the end-of-life arena; and
Whereas psychologists have many areas of competence, including assessment, counseling, teaching, consultation, research, and advocacy skills that could potentially contribute to the science of end-of-life care and to the treatment and support of dying persons and their significant others; and
Whereas psychological research on end-of-life issues is limited in comparison with the magnitude of the issue; and
Whereas there have been no systematic efforts to educate psychologists about end-of-life issues; and
Whereas psychologists in clinical practice have not typically been involved in end-of-life decisions to the degree that they could be; and
Whereas psychologists could assume a significant role in helping health care providers to understand and cope with the concerns and needs of dying individuals and their families; and
Whereas psychologists could be instrumental in supporting public education efforts to raise awareness of issues related to dying, death, grief, mourning, and loss;
Therefore, be it resolved that the American Psychological Association, an organization committed to promoting the psychological well-being of individuals across the life span, should redress psychology's historical under-commitment to end-of-life care by actively promoting and supporting psychology's involvement in end-of-life care. In order to advance this involvement, be it further resolved that the American Psychological Association:
Promote and encourage research and training in the area of end-of-life issues within psychology programs at all levels; and
Encourage and promote the development of a research agenda on end-of-life issues; and
Support efforts to increase funding for research associated with end-of-life issues; and
Encourage psychologists to obtain training in the area of ethics as it applies to end-of-life decisions and care; and
Promote and facilitate psychologists' acquisition of competencies with respect to end-of-life issues, including mastery of the literature on dying and death and sensitivity to diversity dimensions that affect end-of-life experiences; and
Encourage practicing psychologists to be aware of their own views about the end of life, including recognizing possible biases about entitlement to resources based on disability status, age, sex, sexual orientation, or ethnicity of the client making end-of-life decisions; and
Encourage psychologists to be especially sensitive to the social and cultural biases which may result in some groups and individuals being perceived by others, and/or being encouraged to perceive themselves, as more expendable and less deserving of continued life (e.g., people with disabilities, women, older adults, people of color, gay men, lesbians, bisexual people, transgendered individuals, and persons who are poor); and
Support interdisciplinary efforts to increase the competency of psychologists and other health care professionals in end-of-life issues; and
Promote quality end-of-life care including palliative care, access to hospice services, support for terminally ill people and family members, accurate assessment of depression and cognitive capabilities of dying persons, and assistance with end-of-life decision-making; and
Advocate for access to, and reimbursement for, professional mental health services for seriously ill individuals and their families; and
Promote and support public policies that provide for the psychosocial services for dying individuals and their families; and
Support psychologists who wish to participate in ethics committees dealing with end-of-life issues; and
Support psychologists as they work cooperatively with caregivers, medical providers, and multidisciplinary teams to enhance understanding of the psychological aspects of dying and death and to improve quality of care for the dying; and
Endorse the following principles on end-of-life care as articulated in the Institute of Medicine Report entitled Approaching Death: Improving Care at the End of Life (Field & Cassel, 1997):
- Care for those approaching death is an integral and important part of health care;
- Care for those approaching death should involve and respect both patients and those close to them;
- Good care at the end of life depends on clinicians with strong interpersonal skills, clinical knowledge, technical proficiency, and respect for individuals, and it should be informed by scientific evidence, values, and personal and professional experience;
- The health community has a special responsibility for educating itself and others about the identification, management, and discussion of the last phase of fatal medical problems;
- More and better research [in the areas of biomedical, clinical, psychosocial, and health services] is needed to increase our understanding of clinical, cultural, organizational, and other practices or perspectives that can improve care for those approaching death;
- Changing individual behavior is difficult, but changing a culture or an organization is potentially a greater challenge -- and often is a precondition for individual change.
References
Battin, M. P. (1996). The death debate: Ethical issues in suicide (pp. 175-203). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Benoliel, J .Q. & Degner, L. F. (1995) Institutional dying: A convergence of cultural values, technology, and social organization. In H. Wass & R. A. Neimeyer (Eds.) Dying: Facing the facts (pp. 117-141). Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis.
Blendon, R. J., Szalay, U. S., & Knox, R. A. (1992). Should physicians aid their patients in dying? The public perspective. Journal of the American Medical Association, 267, 2658-2662.
Chochinov, H. M., Tataryn, D., Clinch, J. J., & Dudgeon, D. (1999). Will to live in the terminally ill. Lancet, 354, 816-819.
Field, M. J., & Cassel, C. K. (Eds.). (1997). Approaching death: Improving care at the end-of-life. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Foley, K. M. (1995). Pain, physician-assisted suicide, and euthanasia. Pain Forum, 4, 63-178.
Weisman, J. S., Haas, J. S., & Fowler, F. J. (1999). The stability of preferences for life sustaining care among persons with AIDS in the Boston Health Study. Medical Decision Making, 19, 16-26.
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in August 2017. Rationale: This policy is superseded by the 2017 Resolution on Palliative Care and End-of-Life Issues.
2002
APA Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice and Organizational Change for Psychologistsopens in new window (PDF, 319KB)
Note: Policy archived by the APA Council of Representatives in August 2017. Rationale: Out of date and replaced by the Multicultural Guidelines: An Ecological Approach to Context, Identity, and Intersectionality, 2017.
Resolution on Ageism
Adopted by the APA Council of Representatives, February 2002.
Whereas psychologists have documented the role of ageism in assessment and treatment of older adults, the degree to which aging does (or does not) affect human behavior and performance, the effects of age stereotypes, the extent to which ageism is a factor in workplace discrimination, among other concerns related to age and behavior; and
Whereas over the past several years APA has affirmed its opposition to discrimination and stereotyping based on gender, race, physical disability, sexual orientation, and ethnicity; and
Whereas most recently (February 1999) APA affirmed by Council resolution its support of Affirmative Action and equal opportunity for all persons regardless of race, gender, age, religion, disability, sexual orientation and national origin; and
Whereas APA embraces diversity in all efforts and programs and recognizes the dimension of age as an important element of diversity;
Therefore, be it Resolved , that the American Psychological Association rejects ageism in all its forms and is committed to support efforts to eliminate it from our society.
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in August 2020. Rationale: Out of date and replaced by 2020 APA Resolution on Ageism (PDF, 128KB)opens in new window.
2003
Resolution on the Maltreatment of Children with Disabilitiesopens in new window (PDF, 99KB)
Policy archived by the APA Council of Representatives in August 2016.
2004
APA Resolution on Children's Mental Health
Adopted by the APA Council of Representatives, October 2003
(For ease of presentation the term child is used to refer to infants, children and adolescents.)
Whereas psychology has been in the lead in demonstrating the importance of mental health in child development (Burns, Hoagwood, & Mrazek, 1999; Coie et al., 1993; Mrazek, & Haggerty, 1990; Marsh & Fristad, 2002; Wolchik & Sandler, 1997);
Whereas psychology is committed to providing the highest quality mental health care to children based on the best available evidence derived from ecologically valid research and evaluation of promotion, prevention, and treatment interventions (Biglan, A., Mrazek, P. J., Carnine, D., & Flay, B. R. 2003; Nation, M., Crusto, C., Wandersman, A., Kumpfer, K. L., Seybolt, D., Morrissey-Kane, E., & Davino, K. 2003; Weisz, J.R., Jensen, A.L., & McLeod, B.D. in press);
Whereas there are various types of useful evidence of the effectiveness of interventions, including clinical consensus, program evaluations, research using randomized experimental and quasi-experimental designs, single-subject designs, and successful replicated demonstrations of effectiveness in real world settings (Chamberlain, P., & Smith D.K. in press; Durlak, J. A. & Wells, A. M.1997; Durlak, J.A., Wells, A.M., Cotton, J.K., & Johnson, S. 1995). For the purposes of this document, "evidence-based practice" involves the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values (Institute of Medicine, 2001);
Whereas psychology has taken a leadership role in developing mental health promotion, prevention, and treatment interventions that meet high standards of effectiveness (Christopherson, E. R. & Mortweet, S. L. 2001; A. E. Kazdin & J. R. Weisz, Eds., 2003);
Whereas there is inadequate access to appropriate evidence-based promotion, prevention, and treatment services for children with, or at risk for, mental disorders (Paavola, 1994; Weisz, Donenberg, Han, & Weiss, 1995);
Whereas stigma regarding mental health imposes risk for children, and impedes understanding of mental health issues and access to needed mental health services (Corrigan & Lundin, 2002);
Whereas there is a disparity of access to appropriate evidence based promotion, prevention, and treatment services based on poverty, ethnicity, race, and special needs of children (Leong, 2001; Rollock & Gordon, 2000; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2001);
Whereas there is inadequate financing for culturally competent, appropriate, evidence-based promotion, prevention, and treatment services (Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law, 1999; Sturm et al., 2000);
Whereas there is a need for increased research on the translation of evidence-based practices into promotion, prevention, or treatment services that are appropriate for children, families, schools, and communities in real world settings (Burns, 1999; Burns & Friedman, 1990; Burns & Hoagwood, 2002; Clarke, 1995; Kazdin & Weisz, 1998; Schoenwald & Hoagwood, 2001);
Whereas there is a need for increased research on the effectiveness of promotion, prevention, and treatment services for children, families, schools, and communities that are developed by practitioners dealing with problems and varied contexts in the community (Weisz, Donenberg, Hans, & Weiss, 1995);
Whereas there is an increased need for research on assessment and diagnosis of children's mental health problems and strengths in the context of their culture, family, school and community (Wandersman, A., & Florin, P., 2003; Kumpfer, K. L. & Alvarado, R., 2003; Wilson, D. B., Gottfredson, D. C., & Najaka, S. S., 2001; Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., Millsap, R. E., Plummer, B. A., Greene, S. M., Anderson, E. R., Dawson-McClure, S. R., Hipke, K., & Haine, R. A., 2002);
Whereas there is a shortage of trained providers to deliver culturally competent evidence-based promotion, prevention, and treatment services for children (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999; U.S. Public Health Service, 2000);
Therefore, bit resolved , that:
The American Psychological Association (APA) take a significant leadership role to support and advocate that it is every child's right to have access to culturally competent, developmentally appropriate, family oriented, evidence-based, high-quality mental health services that are in accessible settings.
APA take a leadership role in ensuring that the utilization of promotion, prevention, and treatment interventions for child mental health meet the highest standards of available evidence.
APA collaborate with other organizations, consumers, and policy makers to develop and implement a primary mental health care system for children that integrates culturally competent, evidence-based, high quality, promotion, prevention, and treatment services for children, families, schools and communities.
APA provide leadership, support, and advocacy for basic and applied research to develop culturally appropriate knowledge on the promotion of mental health and the prevention and treatment of mental health problems, to translate findings from research into effective services and to evaluate services that are developed at the community level.
APA support and advocate for developing adequate funding sources that are coordinated and efficient for supporting a primary mental health care system.
APA support, advocate, and provide leadership for education and training that builds upon culturally competent, evidence-based promotion of mental health and prevention and treatment of mental health problems for all children, and reduces economic, racial, ethnic and gender disparities.
References
Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law. (1999). Making sense of Medicaid for children with serious emotional disturbance. Washington, D.C.: Author.
Biglan, A., Mrazek, P. J., Carnine, D., & Flay, B. R. (2003). The integration of research and practice in the prevention of youth problem behaviors. American Psychologist, 58, No. 6/7, 433-440.
Burns, B. J., Costello, E. J., Angold, A., Tweed, D., Stangl, D., Farmer, E. M., & Erkanli, A. (1995). Children's mental health service use across service sectors. Health Affairs, 14, 147-159.
Burns, B., & Friedman, R. (1990). Examining the research base for child mental health services and policy. Journal of Mental Health Administration, 17, 87-98.
Burns, B & Hoagwood, K. (Eds.). (2002). Community treatment for youth: Evidence-based interventions for severe emotional and behavioral disorders. New York: Oxford University Press.
Burns, B., Hoagwood, K., & Mrazek, P. (1999). Effective treatment for mental disorders in children and adolescents. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2(4), 199-254.
Chamberlain, P., & Smith D.K. (in press). Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: The Oregon multidimensional treatment foster care model. In A. E. Kazdin & J. R. Weisz (Eds), Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.
Christopherson, E. R. & Mortweet, S. L. (2001). Childhood therapies that help: A much needed resource. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Clarke, G. N. (1995). Improving the transition from basic efficacy research to effectiveness studies: Methodological issues and procedures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 718-725.
Coie, J., Watt, N., West, S., Hawkins, J., Asarnow, J., Markman, J., Ramey, S., Shire, M., & Long, B. (1993). The science of prevention: A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program. American Psychologist, 4(8), 1013-22.
Corrigan, P., & Lundin, R. (2002). Don't call me nuts: Coping with the stigma of mental illness. Chicago: University of Chicago Recovery Press.
Durlak, J. A. & Wells, A. M. (1997). Primary prevention mental health programs for children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 115-152.
Durlak, J.A., Wells, A.M., Cotton, J.K., & Johnson, S. (1995). Analysis of selected methodological issues in child psychotherapy research. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 24, 141-148
Hoagwood, K. (2001). Evidence-based practice in children's mental health services: What do we know? Why aren't we putting it to use? Report on Emotional & Behavioral Disorders in Youth, 1(4), 84-88.
Institute of Medicine (U.S.) Committee on Quality of Health Care in America (2001). Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Kazdin, A. E. & Weisz, J. R. (Eds), (2003). Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents. New York Guilford Press.
Kazdin, A. E., & Weisz, J. R. (1998). Identifying and developing empirically supported child and adolescent treatments. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 19-36.
Kumpfer, K. L. & Alvarado, R. (2003). Family-strengthening approaches for the prevention of youth problem behaviors. American Psychologist, 58, No. 6/7, 457-465.
Leong, F. (Ed.). (2001). Barriers to providing effective mental health services to racial and ethnic minorities in the United States. Mental Health Services Research, 3(4). Marsh, D., & Fristad, M. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of serious emotional disturbance in children and adolescents. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Mrazek, P., & Haggerty, R. (Eds.). (1990). Handbook of early childhood intervention: Frontiers in preventive intervention research. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.
Nation, M., Crusto, C., Wandersman, A., Kumpfer, K. L., Seybolt, D., Morrissey-Kane, E., & Davino, K. (2003). What works in prevention. American Psychologist, 58, No. 6/7, 449-456.
Paavola, J. et al. (1994). Comprehensive and coordinated psychological services for children: A call for service integration. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association Task Force on Comprehensive and Coordinated Psychological Services for Children: Ages 0-10.
Roberts, R., Attkisson, C., & Rosenblatt, A. (1998). Prevalence of psychopathology among children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 715-725.
Rollock, D., & Gordon, E. (2000). Racism and mental health into the 21st century: Perspectives and parameters. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 5-14.
Schoenwald, S. K., & Hoagwood, K. (2001). Effectiveness, transportability, and dissemination of interventions: What matters when? Psychiatric Services, 52, 1190-1197.
Shaffer, D., Fisher, D., Dulcan, M. K., Davies, M., Piacentini, J., Schwab Stone, M. E., Lahey, B. B., Blurdon, K., Jensen, P. S., Bird, H. R., Canino, G., & Regier, D., A. (1996). The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version 2.3: Description, acceptability, prevalence rates, and performance in the MECA Study. Methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 865-877.
Sturm, R., Ringel, J., Bao, C., Stein, B., Kapur, K., Zhang, W., & Zeng, F. (2000). National estimates of mental health utilization and expenditures for children in 1998 (working Paper 205). Los Angeles, CA: Research Center on Managed Care for Psychiatric Disorders.
United States Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Mental health: A report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD.
United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). Mental health: Culture, race and ethnicity. (A supplement to Mental Health: A report of the Surgeon General.) Rockville, MD.
United States Public Health Service. (2000). Report of the Surgeon General's conference on children's mental health: A national action agenda. Rockville, MD.
Weisz, J.R., Jensen, A.L., & McLeod, B.D. (in press). Milestones and methods in development and dissemination of child and adolescent psychotherapies: Review, commentary, and a new deployment-focused model. In E.D. Hibbs & P.S. Jensen (Eds.), Psychosocial treatments for child and adolescent disorders: Empirically based strategies for clinical practice, 2nd edition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Weisz, J., Donenberg, G., Han, S., & Weiss, B. (1995). Bridging the gap between lab and clinic in child and adolescent psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 688-701.
Wilson, D. B., Gottfredson, D. C., & Najaka, S. S. (2001). School-based prevention of problem behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 17, 247-272.
Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., Millsap, R. E., Plummer, B. A., Greene, S. M., Anderson, E. R., Dawson-McClure, S. R., Hipke, K., & Haine, R. A. (2002). Six-year follow-up of preventive interventions for children of divorce: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 1874-1881.
Wolchik, S. A., & Sandler, I. N. (1997). Handbook of children's coping with common life stressors. New York: Plenum.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: Replaced with APA Resolution on Child and Adolescent Mental and Behavioral Healthopens in new window.
Sexual orientation and military service
Sexual Orientation and Military Service
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2019. Rationale: It is now obsolete with the ban on openly LGB people serving in the military lifted.
Sexual orientation, parents and children
Adopted by the APA Council of Representatives July 28 & 30, 2004.
Research Summary
Lesbian and Gay Parents
Many lesbians and gay men are parents. In the 2000 U. S. Census, 33% of female same-sex couple households and 22% of male same-sex couple households reported at least one child under the age of 18 living in the home. Despite the significant presence of at least 163,879 households headed by lesbian or gay parents in U.S. society, three major concerns about lesbian and gay parents are commonly voiced (Falk, 1994; Patterson, Fulcher & Wainright, 2002). These include concerns that lesbians and gay men are mentally ill, that lesbians are less maternal than heterosexual women, and that lesbians' and gay men's relationships with their sexual partners leave little time for their relationships with their children. In general, research has failed to provide a basis for any of these concerns (Patterson, 2000, 2004a; Perrin, 2002; Tasker, 1999; Tasker & Golombok, 1997). First, homosexuality is not a psychological disorder (Conger, 1975). Although exposure to prejudice and discrimination based on sexual orientation may cause acute distress (Mays & Cochran, 2001; Meyer, 2003), there is no reliable evidence that homosexual orientation per se impairs psychological functioning. Second, beliefs that lesbian and gay adults are not fit parents have no empirical foundation (Patterson, 2000, 2004a; Perrin, 2002). Lesbian and heterosexual women have not been found to differ markedly in their approaches to child rearing (Patterson, 2000; Tasker, 1999). Members of gay and lesbian couples with children have been found to divide the work involved in childcare evenly, and to be satisfied with their relationships with their partners (Patterson, 2000, 2004a). The results of some studies suggest that lesbian mothers' and gay fathers' parenting skills may be superior to those of matched heterosexual parents. There is no scientific basis for concluding that lesbian mothers or gay fathers are unfit parents on the basis of their sexual orientation (Armesto, 2002; Patterson, 2000; Tasker & Golombok, 1997). On the contrary, results of research suggest that lesbian and gay parents are as likely as heterosexual parents to provide supportive and healthy environments for their children.
Children of Lesbian and Gay Parents
As the social visibility and legal status of lesbian and gay parents has increased, three major concerns about the influence of lesbian and gay parents on children have been often voiced (Falk, 1994; Patterson, Fulcher & Wainright, 2002). One is that the children of lesbian and gay parents will experience more difficulties in the area of sexual identity than children of heterosexual parents. For instance, one such concern is that children brought up by lesbian mothers or gay fathers will show disturbances in gender identity and/or in gender role behavior. A second category of concerns involves aspects of children's personal development other than sexual identity. For example, some observers have expressed fears that children in the custody of gay or lesbian parents would be more vulnerable to mental breakdown, would exhibit more adjustment difficulties and behavior problems, or would be less psychologically healthy than other children. A third category of concerns is that children of lesbian and gay parents will experience difficulty in social relationships. For example, some observers have expressed concern that children living with lesbian mothers or gay fathers will be stigmatized, teased, or otherwise victimized by peers. Another common fear is that children living with gay or lesbian parents will be more likely to be sexually abused by the parent or by the parent's friends or acquaintances.
Results of social science research have failed to confirm any of these concerns about children of lesbian and gay parents (Patterson, 2000, 2004a; Perrin, 2002; Tasker, 1999). Research suggests that sexual identities (including gender identity, gender-role behavior, and sexual orientation) develop in much the same ways among children of lesbian mothers as they do among children of heterosexual parents (Patterson, 2004a). Studies of other aspects of personal development (including personality, self-concept, and conduct) similarly reveal few differences between children of lesbian mothers and children of heterosexual parents (Perrin, 2002; Stacey & Biblarz, 2001; Tasker, 1999). However, few data regarding these concerns are available for children of gay fathers (Patterson, 2004b). Evidence also suggests that children of lesbian and gay parents have normal social relationships with peers and adults (Patterson, 2000, 2004a; Perrin, 2002; Stacey & Biblarz, 2001; Tasker, 1999; Tasker & Golombok, 1997). The picture that emerges from research is one of general engagement in social life with peers, parents, family members, and friends. Fears about children of lesbian or gay parents being sexually abused by adults, ostracized by peers, or isolated in single-sex lesbian or gay communities have received no scientific support. Overall, results of research suggest that the development, adjustment, and well-being of children with lesbian and gay parents do not differ markedly from that of children with heterosexual parents.
Resolution
Whereas APA supports policy and legislation that promote safe, secure, and nurturing environments for all children (DeLeon, 1993, 1995; Fox, 1991; Levant, 2000);
Whereas APA has a long-established policy to deplore "all public and private discrimination against gay men and lesbians" and urges "the repeal of all discriminatory legislation against lesbians and gay men" (Conger, 1975);
Whereas the APA adopted the Resolution on Child Custody and Placement in 1976 (Conger, 1977, p. 432)
Whereas discrimination against lesbian and gay parents deprives their children of benefits, rights, and privileges enjoyed by children of heterosexual married couples;
Whereas some jurisdictions prohibit gay and lesbian individuals and same-sex couples from adopting children, notwithstanding the great need for adoptive parents (Lofton v. Secretary, 2004);
Whereas there is no scientific evidence that parenting effectiveness is related to parental sexual orientation: lesbian and gay parents are as likely as heterosexual parents to provide supportive and healthy environments for their children (Patterson, 2000, 2004; Perrin, 2002; Tasker, 1999);
Whereas research has shown that the adjustment, development, and psychological well-being of children is unrelated to parental sexual orientation and that the children of lesbian and gay parents are as likely as those of heterosexual parents to flourish (Patterson, 2004; Perrin, 2002; Stacey & Biblarz, 2001);
Therefore be it resolved that the APA opposes any discrimination based on sexual orientation in matters of adoption, child custody and visitation, foster care, and reproductive health services;
Therefore be it further resolved that the APA believes that children reared by a same-sex couple benefit from legal ties to each parent;
Therefore be it further resolved that the APA supports the protection of parent-child relationships through the legalization of joint adoptions and second parent adoptions of children being reared by same-sex couples;
Therefore be it further resolved that APA shall take a leadership role in opposing all discrimination based on sexual orientation in matters of adoption, child custody and visitation, foster care, and reproductive health services;
Therefore be it further resolved that APA encourages psychologists to act to eliminate all discrimination based on sexual orientation in matters of adoption, child custody and visitation, foster care, and reproductive health services in their practice, research, education and training (American Psychological Association, 2002);
Therefore be it further resolved that the APA shall provide scientific and educational resources that inform public discussion and public policy development regarding discrimination based on sexual orientation in matters of adoption, child custody and visitation, foster care, and reproductive health services and that assist its members, divisions, and affiliated state, provincial, and territorial psychological associations.
References
American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist , 57, 1060-1073.
Armesto, J. C. (2002). Developmental and contextual factors that influence gay fathers' parental competence: A review of the literature. Psychology of Men and Masculinity , 3, 67 - 78.
Conger, J.J. (1975). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the year 1974: Minutes of the Annual meeting of the Council of Representatives. American Psychologist , 30, 620-651.
Conger, J. J. (1977). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the legislative year 1976: Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Council of Representatives. American Psychologist , 32, 408-438.
DeLeon, P.H. (1993). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the year 1992: Minutes of the annual meeting of the Council of Representatives August 13 and 16, 1992, and February 26-28, 1993, Washington, DC. American Psychologist , 48, 782.
DeLeon, P.H. (1995). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the year 1994: Minutes of the annual meeting of the Council of Representatives August 11 and 14, 1994, Los Angeles, CA, and February 17-19, 1995, Washington, DC. American Psychologist , 49, 627-628.
Falk, P.J. (1994). Lesbian mothers: Psychosocial assumptions in family law. American Psychologist , 44, 941-947.
Fox, R.E. (1991). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the year 1990: Minutes of the annual meeting of the Council of Representatives August 9 and 12, 1990, Boston, MA, and February 8-9, 1991, Washington, DC. American Psychologist , 45, 845.
Levant, R.F. (2000). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the legislative year 1999: Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Council of Representatives February 19-21, 1999, Washington, DC, and August 19 and 22, 1999, Boston, MA, and Minutes of the February, June, August, and December 1999 Meetings of the Board of Directors. American Psychologist , 55, 832-890.
Lofton v. Secretary of Department of Children & Family Services, 358 F.3d 804 (11th Cir. 2004).
Mays, V. M., & Cochran, S. D. (2001). Mental health correlates of perceived discrimination among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. American Journal of Public Health , 91, 1869-1876.
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin , 129, 674-697.
Patterson, C.J. (2000). Family relationships of lesbians and gay men. Journal of Marriage and Family , 62, 1052- 1069.
Patterson, C.J. (2004a). Lesbian and gay parents and their children: Summary of research findings. In Lesbian and gay parenting: A resource for psychologists . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Patterson, C. J. (2004b). Gay fathers. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (4th Ed.). New York: John Wiley.
Patterson, C. J., Fulcher, M., & Wainright, J. (2002). Children of lesbian and gay parents: Research, law, and policy. In B. L. Bottoms, M. B. Kovera, and B. D. McAuliff (Eds.), Children, Social Science and the Law (pp, 176 - 199). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Perrin, E. C., and the Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health (2002). Technical Report: Coparent or second-parent adoption by same-sex parents. Pediatrics , 109, 341 - 344.
Stacey, J. & Biblarz, T.J. (2001). (How) Does sexual orientation of parents matter? American Sociological Review , 65, 159-183.
Tasker, F. (1999). Children in lesbian-led families - A review. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 4, 153 - 166.
Tasker, F., & Golombok, S. (1997). Growing up in a lesbian family . New York: Guilford Press.
Please cite this policy statement as:
Paige, R. U. (2005). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the legislative year 2004. Minutes of the meeting of the Council of Representatives July 28 & 30, 2004, Honolulu, HI. Retrieved November 18, 2004, from the World Wide Web https://www.apa.org/governance/. (To be published in Volume 60, Issue Number 5 of the American Psychologist.)
Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February, 2020.
2005
2005 White House Conference on Agingopens in new window (PDF, 67KB)
Note: Out of date and replaced by the APA Resolution on the 2015 White House Conference on Aging
Resolution on violence in video games and interactive mediaopens in new window (PDF, 89KB)
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in August 2015. Rationale: Out of date, resolution was replaced by the 2015 Resolution on violent video games. The 2015 Resolution was archived by the APA Council of Representatives in February 2020 and replaced by the 2020 Resolution on Violent video Games (PDF, 60KB)opens in new window.
2006
Report of the Working Group on Psychotropic Medications for Children and Adolescentsopens in new window (PDF, 863KB)
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Outdated, as recommended by the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest.
APA Resolution on Drug Abuse Treatment to Prevent HIV Among Injecting Drug Users
APA resolution on drug abuse treatment to prevent HIV among injecting drug users
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in August 2019.
2007
Resolution on Anti-Semitic and Anti-Jewish Prejudice (PDF, 135KB)opens in new window
Policy archived by the APA Council of Representatives in February 2026.
2009
Resolution on The Psychological Needs of Children Exposed to Disasters
Policy archived by the APA Council of Representatives in August 2025.
2011
Resolution on Family Caregivers
Resolution on Family Caregivers (PDF, 50KB)opens in new window
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in August 2026
Guidelines for the Evaluation of Dementia and Age-Related Cognitive Change
Introduction
Dementia in its many forms is a leading cause of functional limitation among older adults worldwide and will continue to ascend in global health importance as populations continue to age and effective cures remain elusive (Mathers & Loncar, 2006). Plassman et al. (2007) estimated that over 2.5 million Americans suffered from Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and nearly 4 million had that and other forms of dementia in 2002. Given expected increases in the size of the older adult population those numbers are expected to increase strikingly by 2050 (Alzheimer's Association, 2009).
The following guidelines were developed for psychologists who perform evaluations of dementia and age-related cognitive change. These guidelines conform to the American Psychological Association's Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 2002). The term guidelines refers to statements that suggest or recommend specific professional behavior, endeavors, or conduct for psychologists. Guidelines differ from standards in that standards are mandatory and may be accomplished by an enforcement mechanism. Guidelines are aspirational in intent. They are intended to facilitate the continued systematic development of the profession and to help facilitate a high level of practice by psychologists. Guidelines are not intended to be mandatory or exhaustive and may not be applicable to every professional situation. They are not definitive and they are not intended to take precedence over the judgment of psychologists.
Guidelines on this topic were originally developed by an APA Presidential Task Force, approved as policy of APA by the APA Council of Representatives and published in 1998. Consistent with APA standards, these guidelines were subject to sunset or review in 2008. The Board of Professional Affairs (BPA) and the Committee on Professional Practice and Standards (COPPS) conducted an initial review and determined that they should not be sunset and revision was appropriate. The APA Committee on Aging empanelled a group of experts who reviewed and deemed appropriate the maintenance of these guidelines with appropriate revision and updating. The introduction to the original guidelines remains pertinent today:
"Psychologists can play a leading role in the evaluation of the memory complaints and changes in cognitive functioning that frequently occur in the later decades of life. Although some healthy aging persons maintain very high cognitive performance levels throughout life, most older people will experience a decline in certain cognitive abilities. This decline is usually not pathological, but rather parallels a number of common decreases in physiological function that occur in conjunction with normal developmental processes.
For some older persons, however, declines go beyond what may be considered "normal" and are relentlessly progressive, robbing them of their memories, intellect, and eventually their abilities to recognize spouses or children, maintain basic personal hygiene, or even utter comprehensible speech. These more malignant forms of cognitive deterioration are caused by a variety of neuropathological conditions and dementing diseases.
Psychologists are uniquely equipped by training, expertise, and the use of specialized neuropsychological tests to assess changes in memory and cognitive functioning and to distinguish normal changes from early signs of pathology. .... Neuropsychological evaluation and cognitive testing remain among the most effective differential diagnostic methods in discriminating pathophysiological dementia from age-related cognitive decline, cognitive difficulties that are depression-related, and other related disorders. Even after reliable biological markers have been discovered, neuropsychological evaluation and cognitive testing will still be necessary to determine the onset of dementia, the functional expression of the disease process, the rate of decline, the functional capacities of the individual, and hopefully, response to therapies.
... These guidelines, however, are intended to specify appropriate cautions and concerns for all clinicians which are specific to the assessment of dementia and agerelated cognitive decline. These guidelines are aspirational in intent and are neither mandatory nor exhaustive. The goal of the guidelines is to promote proficiency and expertise in assessing dementia and age-related cognitive decline in clinical practice. These guidelines may not be applicable in certain circumstances, such as some experimental or clinical research projects and/or some forensic evaluations." (p.1298, APA 1998).
I. General Guidelines: Competence
1. Psychologists performing evaluations of dementia and age-related cognitive change are familiar with the prevailing diagnostic nomenclature and specific diagnostic criteria.
Rationale . A clear understanding of how cognitive disorders are defined and diagnosed is important for developing assessment plans, providing feedback to individuals and their family members, and communicating effectively with other professionals involved in an individual’s care. Differential diagnosis requires knowledge of a broad range of psychological and medical conditions that can affect an individual’s cognitive state and an appreciation of both the general trends and individual differences that characterize normal cognitive aging. Because diagnostic nomenclature and criteria evolve in response to clinical and scientific advances, updating of knowledge is recommended to sustain a high level of competence in assessing cognitive disorders.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: 4 th Edition (DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) outlines diagnostic criteria for the clinical syndrome of dementia and additional criteria for diagnosing dementia of the Alzheimer type and vascular dementia, as well as briefer guidelines for diagnosing 3 less common causes of dementia such as head trauma, Parkinson’s disease, and general medical disorders. Diagnostic guidelines for AD have also been provided by the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke (NINCDS) and by the Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders Association (ADRDA) (McKhann et al., 1984). The NINCDS-ADRDA guidelines provide criteria for identifying probable and possible AD and are widely used in research. Neuropsychological testing to confirm the presence and nature of cognitive deficits is required in the NINCDS-ADRDA criteria for AD and figures prominently in the consensus panel guidelines for assessing other forms of dementia.
Consensus groups have offered detailed and clinically useful diagnostic criteria for several other major causes of late-life dementia, including vascular dementia (Roman et al., 1993), frontotemporal dementia (Neary et al., 1998), and dementia with Lewy bodies (McKeith et al., 2005). All diagnostic criteria require confirmation of dementia by clinical examination and the exclusion of other explanations for the cognitive deficits by history, clinical examination, or specialized tests.
If memory is the chief presenting complaint, but significant decline in everyday function is absent and observed performance is within expected ranges on relevant neuropsychological tests, the DSM-IV category of Age-Related Cognitive Decline may apply.
Some older adults have memory and cognitive difficulties that are greater than those typical of normal aging, but not so severe as to warrant a diagnosis of dementia. Many terms have been used to refer to these syndromes of borderline impairment. In recent years, the term Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) has come to the forefront in usage within the United States. Recent definitions of MCI include several subtypes (amnestic vs. nonamnestic, sole deficit vs. multifocal) (Winblad et al., 2004). The debate continues regarding the necessity and utility of MCI as a diagnostic entity but there is a substantial probability that some form of diagnosis for mild cognitive disorders (e.g. Minor Neurocognitive Disorder) will be present in DSM-V.
Cognitive impairment symptoms may also accompany common mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety disorders. Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, is included in the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for Major Depressive Episode and Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Familiarity with the cognitive sequelae of common psychiatric disorders is essential for differentiating between psychiatrically related cognitive impairments and mood changes that sometimes signal the onset of dementia (Devanand, 1996).
Application . Psychologists are encouraged to obtain training and continuing education to enhance and maintain their expertise of and utilize current diagnostic concepts, criteria and nomenclature in their evaluations of older adults.
2. Psychologists gain specialized competence in assessment and intervention with older adults.
Rationale . A central ethical tenet for psychologists is that they practice only within their area of competence (American Psychological Association, 2002). Psychologists who conduct evaluations of dementia and age-related cognitive changes are aware that special competencies are required for this activity. Competence in gathering clinical history; conducting clinical interviews; and administering, scoring, and interpreting psychological and neuropsychological tests is necessary but may not be sufficient.
Application . Psychologists engaged in evaluation of dementia and age-related cognitive change have a solid foundation in clinical psychology. In addition, they are encouraged to obtain fundamental education, training, and supervised experience in geropsychology, neuropsychology, rehabilitation psychology, pharmacology, neuropathology and psychopathology.
II. General Guidelines: Ethical Considerations
1. Psychologists are aware of the special issues surrounding informed consent in cognitively compromised populations.
Rationale . Psychologists recognize the special challenge of informed consent in dementia evaluations. Informed consent requires that one’s consent to treatment be competent, voluntary, and informed (American Bar Association & American Psychological Association, 2008). Informed consent implies the person has capacity to understand the significant benefits, risks, and alternatives of the proposed assessment and to make and communicate a health-care decision (Uniform Health- Care Decisions Act of 1993, 1994). Yet compromised cognitive ability to make health care decisions is one of the key capacities that may be affected by dementia and age-related cognitive changes. This creates the appearance of a double-bind regarding obtaining informed consent for dementia evaluations. The American Bar Association & American Psychological Association (ABA & APA) Assessment of older adults with diminished capacity: A handbook for psychologists (2008) provides guidance to help the clinician when accessing persons who may have diminished capacity. The Handbook notes: "The person may have capacity to consent to the evaluation, and either agrees or refuses. In this case, the person has provided a valid agreement or refusal, and this can be documented. Alternatively the person may not have the capacity to consent to the evaluation, and either agrees or refuses. If the person agrees, he or she is generally said to have "assented" and the assessment process goes forward. If the person disagrees, and refuses to comply with an interview, then the psychologist must document why the person is believed to lack the capacity to refuse the evaluation. In some situations, the capacity evaluation stops there. In other situations, where a capacity evaluation is court ordered, the psychologist may be asked to provide an opinion based on his or her observations of the person" (p.35, ABA & APA, 2008).
Application . Psychologists review the purpose, nature and procedures of the evaluation with the older adult in a manner and with terms most likely to foster understanding. Psychologists inform individuals and their legal proxies of limitations to confidentiality, constraints on release of raw test data, and mandatory reporting requirements. Psychologists define the benefits and risks for the person being assessed. These may include gathering of helpful clinical information that can be used in diagnosis and treatment planning but also the loss of decision-making rights, potential lack of confidentiality, and the possible need for a guardian or conservator. In certain situations psychologists may need to offer an expert opinion regarding capacity regardless of whether or not the person consents to a full evaluation. In these situations, psychologists are encouraged to inform the individual that the evaluation must be conducted whether or not they are willing participants and a refusal to participate will result in the evaluation being compiled from other sources.
If the individual is legally incapable of providing consent, the psychologist must obtain consent from a legally authorized person (See Section 3.10 of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code Of Conduct, 2002) to carry out the evaluation and to gather information from other health professionals and family members (see Guideline III.1). Psychologists document the consent, assent, or refusal of the individual as appropriate. Psychologists also document evidence regarding the person’s capacity or lack thereof to consent to the assessment.
2. Psychologists seek and provide appropriate consultation in the course of performing dementia and age-related cognitive change evaluations.
Rationale . Complex issues arise during the evaluation of suspected cognitive decline or dementia. These issues may include multiple medical co-morbidities or medication side effects, genetic and heritability issues, abuse or neglect, issues regarding legal competence or guardianship, conflicting or unclear assessment results, and families overwhelmed or divided by the potential diagnosis. Psychologists providing services to this population strive to be particularly sensitive to the multiple health conditions that impact cognitive function. In all of these areas the clinician, individual, and/or family may benefit from the expertise or services of other professionals such as physicians, genetic counselors, adult protective and social service workers, attorneys, and other psychologists (ABA & APA, 2008).
Application . When the psychologist is the first professional the individual contacts, the psychologist seeks to gather existing medical records to complement the assessment. If appropriate, the individual may be referred for a thorough medical evaluation to discover any underlying medical disorder or any potentially reversible medical conditions associated with dementia or cognitive decline.
If issues of abuse or neglect arise, psychologists notify appropriate authorities and make referral for appropriate services. In addition, psychologists are encouraged to inform the individual of the reporting requirement prior to services being rendered. In matters of legal capacity and guardianship, the psychologist seeks additional legal consultation, supervision, and/or specialized knowledge, training, or experience as appropriate to address these issues. Psychologists communicate their findings to other health care professionals with sensitivity to issues of informed written consent that is compliant with HIPAA [Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996] guidelines.
Psychologists are encouraged to help educate other health care professionals who administer mental status examinations or other brief psychological tools regarding the benefits and limitations of these instruments and their clinical utility for particular applications. Education can also be provided about the utility and limitations of more comprehensive psychological or neuropsychological assessment in dementia evaluations.
In all cases psychologists strive to consult widely with appropriate professionals or seek information to clarify relevant issues. Psychologists are encouraged to seek out the most current information and are mindful of instances where professional consensus has yet to be reached.
3. Psychologists are aware of cultural perspectives and of personal and societal biases and engage in nondiscriminatory practice.
Rationale . Biases may affect the evaluation of dementia and age-related cognitive function. Biases that could have untoward effects on assessment and guidelines are provided in APA’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002). In particular, tests may have been constructed in accordance with the Principles’ goals to reduce or eliminate bias; however, the psychologist is advised to carefully evaluate the test quality and appropriateness for individual circumstances, especially when the test is being administered to individuals with different cultural and linguistic backgrounds (American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], and National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME], 1999). Often only highly educated, majority normative samples were used for many neuropsychological tests. The psychologist is advised to ensure the tests used are appropriate for the individual being served. Certain populations, such as immigrants (with or without documentation), trauma victims and non-English speaking clients may be especially vulnerable. Secondly, individuals’ reactions and performances on testing may be influenced by their own expectations. For example, anxiety and/or stereotype threat (a confirmatory bias leading to performance that conforms with societal stereotypes) can reduce performance on cognitive testing (Scholl & Sabat, 2008). The psychologist is advised to be vigilant for such anxieties and work with the individual so they might better understand the evaluation procedures and purposes to ensure accurate and optimal performance.
Application . To varying degrees, biases are pervasive. The psychologist’s and individual’s biases (e.g., stereotype threat) may negatively influence an evaluation. The psychologist is alert and sensitive to differing roles, expectations, and normative standards within a sociocultural context. In practice and when appropriate, the psychologist discusses potential biases to ensure optimal performance is achieved for the assessment. The psychologist strives to control biases through reviewing relevant research and relying on evidence-based practice guidelines, and by seeking additional consultation or, in some cases, withdrawing from the evaluation. If the psychologist is unable to conduct the evaluation fairly, the ethical psychologist seeks to refer the individual to other psychologists capable of providing services.
III. Procedural Guidelines: Conducting Evaluations of Dementia and Age-Related Cognitive Change
1. Psychologists strive to obtain all appropriate information for conducting an evaluation of dementia and age-related cognitive change including pertinent medical history and communicating with relevant health care providers.
Rationale . Cognitive function and change are associated with several medical and psychosocial conditions that must be considered in any evaluation of current cognitive performance. However, individuals and even knowledgeable informants may be poor historians or lack information regarding the individual’s past and current medical status, medication use and daily function. Medical, occupational, and educational records and family history documents can provide important contextual and functional information pertinent to the evaluation (ABA & APA, 2008). In practice the amount of reliable information available to the psychologist for the evaluation may be highly variable, depending in part on the availability of relevant records as well as knowledgeable family, friends and other professionals. Conclusions and recommendations flowing from the evaluation may be constrained by the need for further information or follow-up evaluation.
Application . Psychologists strive to understand fully all facets of the referred individual’s context. Psychologists are encouraged to consult with health care providers and seek relevant records, particularly concerning the individual’s health status, medical history, and current medications. As the individual may be able to give only limited self-report and may be an unreliable historian, psychologists seek consent or assent from the individual to gather corroborative information from other informants. Psychologists inform these sources of the potential uses of the information and limits to confidentiality. In obtaining collateral information the psychologist considers the potential biases and motives of informants.
2. Psychologists conduct a clinical interview as part of the evaluation.
Rationale . Although objective neuropsychological testing provides valuable data for diagnostic purposes, the clinical interview remains an essential element of an in-depth assessment for dementia (ABA & APA, 2008; Mackinnon & Mulligan, 1998; National Center for Cost Containment, 1997). Obtaining contextual and historical information from interviewing knowledgeable informants improves diagnostic accuracy and may be less likely to be biased by sex and gender, education, or ethnicity in comparison to performance-based measures (Galvin et al, 2005; Monnot, Brosey, and Ross, 2005). Interview data from a corroborative source such as a caregiver or knowledgeable family member can provide information on everyday cognitive functioning (Waite et al, 1998). An advantage of informant history is the ability to assess change in performance from earlier in life which also potentially reduces test bias (Jorm, 1996). Finally, obtaining data from informant interviews can add greater precision in the design of appropriate behavioral, environmental and pharmacological treatments of dementia (Waite et al, 1998; Hartman-Stein, Reuter, and Schuster, 2002).
Directly interviewing the individual whenever possible allows the clinician to evaluate firsthand the level of cognitive function and the individual’s awareness of any cognitive and behavioral changes and to discern psychosocial stressors or other mental health problems that may be contributing to the cognitive change. Such data obtained from direct interviews are invaluable for both diagnostic and treatment planning purposes.
Application . In order to accurately to diagnose conditions that are associated with cognitive decline and functional disability, psychologists conduct a clinical interview with the individual and obtain corroboration from knowledgeable informants whenever possible. Key information obtained during the interview includes:
- the onset and course of changes in cognitive functioning
- pre-existing disabilities
- educational and cultural background that could affect testing variability
- general medical and psychiatric history
- past neurologic history including prior head injuries or other central nervous system insults (strokes, tumors, infections, etc.)
- current psychiatric symptoms and significant life stressors
- current prescription and over-the-counter medication use
- current and past use and abuse of alcohol and drugs
- family history of dementia
Psychologists may choose to incorporate structured, evidence-based clinical dementia rating tools, brief mental status examinations, and formal measures of functional status in their clinical interviews.
In order to design practical recommendations for treatment planning purposes, during the clinical interview the psychologist obtains, whenever possible, functional information from the individual and collateral sources regarding the individual’s ability to manage the important aspects of self care (ABA & APA, 2008). In evaluating suspected dementia, Psychologists are sensitive to families' and individuals’ understanding of the potential diagnosis of dementia and its ramifications. They are also aware of the individual’s past and current coping skills as well as resources from which the individual can receive support, including cultural, ethnic and religious communities.
3. Psychologists are aware that standardized psychological and neuropsychological tests are important tools in the assessment of dementia and age-related cognitive change.
Rationale . The use of psychometric instruments may represent the most important and unique contribution of psychologists to the assessment of dementia and cognitive change. (American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], and National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME],1999). Psychometric assessment provides objective information on cognitive strengths and impairments necessary for diagnosis. Testing provides reliable information for tracking cognitive change over time or in response to interventions.
Brief mental status examinations contribute to the evaluation for possible dementia and other cognitive impairments and track cognitive change in individuals with more severe levels of impairment. Brief cognitive assessment tools should be standardized and have good positive predictive values for identifying possible cognitive impairment. Psychologists strive to be familiar with the positive and negative predictive values of these tools for identifying cognitive impairment in populations with similar age, educational, and ethnic and racial characteristics as the persons to be assessed. Common cut scores for brief mental status examinations generate adequate sensitivity to dementia, but may not have reasonable specificity (USPSTF, 2003). Moreover, brief mental status tests have poor sensitivity for pre-clinical detection of dementia. For these reasons there may be poor concordance between a brief mental status score and functional status or clinical concern. Thus, both positive and negative results on brief mental status testing may require follow-up with more in-depth neuropsychological testing.
Comprehensive neuropsychological evaluations for dementia and cognitive change include tests of multiple cognitive domains, typically including memory, attention, perceptual and motor skills, language, visuospatial abilities, reasoning, and executive functions. Measures of mood and personality may be relevant in many cases. Psychologists are encouraged to refer to current compendia resources and the clinical research literature in selecting assessment instruments.
There are many tests and approaches that are useful for assessments, and the number of tests with normative data for older age ranges has increased. Supplementing standard age norms with normative data obtained from samples where the absence of dementia has been established longitudinally may help to increase reliability in identifying mild levels of cognitive impairment.
Research to establish norms on commonly used clinical tests for specific ethnic and racial populations is growing, but representative norms are still lacking in some cases. Psychologists assessing older adults from racial and ethnic minorities strive to seek and use the best available tests for each individual’s background and consult with expert colleagues as needed regarding interpretation.
Technology assisted assessments (e.g., computer administered cognitive batteries, tele-health visits) are rapidly advancing but appropriate psychometric properties and normative data are nascent. These technologies may have significant advantages for older persons with limited mobility or health-care access, but may also disadvantage older persons with limited experience and expertise interacting with technology.
Application . Psychologists are encouraged to use standardized, reliable, and valid tests. Whether traditional or technology-assisted, appropriate tests have normative data for the age range of the person being assessed and are suitable for the individual’s ethnicity, race, and educational background. In particular, the positive and negative predictive values of the instruments are considered when selecting tests for dementia, cognitive impairment, and age-related cognitive change. Furthermore, testing instruments should be sensitive to subtle changes in cognitive function over time.
Regarding age norms, psychologists are aware of the relative stringency with which persons with mild cognitive impairment or beginning dementia were excluded from the standardization samples for a given test. They appropriately adjust their clinical decision making for these tests. Psychologists assessing cognitive function and change among older adults of ethnic and racial minorities are familiar with the adequacy of the normative data for ethnic and racial minorities for the various measures they employ.
4. When evaluating for cognitive and behavioral changes in individuals, psychologists attempt to estimate premorbid abilities.
Rationale . The diagnosis of dementia requires evidence of decline from a previously higher level of cognitive function. Ideally, psychologists assessing for cognitive declines in older persons would have baseline test data from earlier years against which current performance could be compared. Unfortunately, this information rarely exists, so psychologists must try to estimate premorbid abilities. Factors commonly considered include socioeconomic status, educational level, occupational history, and individual and family reports. This type of demographic and historical information can be supplemented by contemporaneous tests such as word recognition reading. Word recognition reading tests are highly correlated with global cognitive function but insensitive to early changes in most dementias (McGurn, et al., 2004). However, this method might be sensitive to dementia type and severity (Cockburn, Keene, Hope & Smith, 2000). Traditional methods of estimating premorbid cognitive functioning may be especially biased for ethnic and racial minorities. A particular difficulty may be posed by individuals with intellectual disabilities who present for dementia evaluation (for review see Margallo-Lana, 2009; Styron, Livingston, King & Hassiotis, 2007).
Application . Psychologists strive to use premorbid functioning estimating methods that are appropriate to individual needs. Psychologists are encouraged to be aware of the limits of various approaches to premorbid ability estimation and appropriately qualify their clinical judgments about premorbid function.
5. Psychologists are sensitive to the limitations and sources of variability and error in psychometric performance, and to the sources of error in diagnostic decision making.
Rationale . Psychometric instruments and clinical interpretations of these instruments are subject to error. Instruments have known or knowable limits to their reliability and validity (American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], and National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME], 1999). Clinical decision making must contend with limits on positive or negative predictive values (Fletcher, Fletcher, & Wagner, 1996). These psychometric and clinical properties are impacted by varying factors (Smith, Ivnik, & Lucas, 2008) including demography (e.g., age, education, ethnicity, etc.) and context (e.g., clinical setting).
Application . Psychologists strive to understand sources of variability and error in their instruments and judgments about cognitive change. They strive to maximize the reliability and validity of the assessment process via appropriate collection of history and selection of instruments, norms, and procedures. Psychologists are encouraged to recognize limitations in the evaluation process by appropriately qualifying their judgments and conclusions.
6. Psychologists make appropriate use of longitudinal data.
Rationale . Existing cognitive data can serve as a baseline against which to measure future changes in cognitive functions. Magnitudes and rates of cognitive change, as well as response to treatment, can also be determined by follow-up testing. However, many cognitive instruments are insensitive to changes over shorter periods. In most cases, a one-year follow-up interval is adequate for monitoring changes in cognitive performance, unless the individual, family, or other health care professionals report a more rapid decline or improvement, emergence of new symptoms, or changes in life circumstances (APA, 1998).
Because test means may decline with age, it is important that tests selected for use in the evaluation of dementia and age-related cognitive change have adequately accounted for uncomplicated age-related changes in cognitive function. The lack of adequate longitudinal norms for older adults can pose a problem for longitudinal evaluation, even as better and larger standardization samples of older adults are now available for many commonly used clinical tests.
Application . Psychologists are encouraged to utilize prior cognitive data when available. Psychologists strive to be knowledgeable of the stability parameters of the instruments they use over specific inter-test intervals. Psychologists strive to become familiar with patterns of practice or learning effects and accommodate these effects in their test selection and application. Psychologists are thus aware of clinically meaningful magnitudes of test changes (e.g. Reliable Change Indices; Jacobson & Truax, 1991; Temkin, Heaton, Grant, & Dikmen, 1999) so that patterns and the extent of change can be interpreted appropriately. Psychologists recommend follow-up testing only as appropriate and recognize that interim follow-up not involving formal testing may also be useful in many cases.
7. Psychologists recognize that providing constructive feedback, support, and education as well as maintaining a therapeutic alliance, can be important parts of the evaluation process.
Rationale . Individuals concerned about cognitive and behavioral changes associated with aging, generally come to the evaluation process seeking information as well as emotional support. This often is a severely distressing situation for the individual, who may or may not have been the key individual in making the decision to have an assessment conducted (ABA & APA, 2008; APA, 1998). Provision of both information and support, while maintaining a sense of respect and dignity for the individual, regardless of level of cognitive impairment, reflect both professional ethics and sound clinical practice (APA, 2002). Establishing a therapeutic alliance is critical for accurate assessment, development of efficacious intervention, and increased likelihood that interventions will be effectively implemented with good adherence.
Application . In many instances, individuals may benefit from feedback regarding the evaluation in language that they can understand. Psychologists are encouraged to exercise clinical judgment and take into consideration the needs and capabilities of the particular individual when feedback is provided. The presence of a significant support person during feedback allows the clinician to assist with differences of opinion, respond to individual questions, and facilitate the interactions between the individual and persons in their support network (Green, 2006).
Providing feedback, education, and support to persons significant to the individual, with the individual’s informed consent, are also important aspects of evaluations and enhance their value and applicability. Knowledge regarding levels of impairment, the expected course, and expected outcomes can help these significant others to make adequate preparations. Working with the individual’s support network in this way can provide them with effective means of responding to the challenges posed by behavior changes stemming from a diagnosis of dementia. Healthy older adults who have had concerns about their cognitive functions can benefit from reassurance based on results of testing and from suggestions as to how they may enhance their everyday cognitive function.
With regard to feedback, education and support, psychologists are encouraged to be sensitive to issues of marriage, partnerships, family relationships and friendships of each unique individual. Psychologists strive to acknowledge and accord full respect to these relationships, including those of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people even if these relationships are not recognized by law or acknowledged by individual institutions.
8. As part of the evaluation process, psychologists appropriately recommend interventions available to persons with cognitive impairment and their caregivers.
Rationale . Persons with cognitive impairment often also display mood disturbance and challenging behaviors and generally have compromised daily function. Functional, emotional, and behavior challenges can be addressed with a variety of cognitive, behavioral and psychosocial interventions. These interventions rely on retained abilities, such as preserved procedural/ nondeclarative memory and preserved reading abilities, social history, and environmental cues. It is therefore critical not only to be fully aware of the deficits associated with a diagnosis of dementia, but also to be knowledgeable of those abilities that are relatively spared in dementia, as well as the individual’s personal history, background, and current levels of functional capacity.
Functional deficit associated with cognitive decline can be partially mitigated through the use of cognitive training paradigms (e.g. spaced retrieval), or external aids (e.g. planners or medication dispensers). However, both approaches require intensive training. Moreover, caregivers and other environmental support are crucial in maintaining positive effects of these interventions.
Challenging behaviors (especially those falling within "the four A’s of dementia" i.e., agitation, aggression, anxiety, and apathy) are considered by some an attempt to communicate unmet human needs in persons with dementia and related disorders (Cohen-Mansfield, Libin, & Marx, 2007). Causes of challenging behavior can include physical issues (e.g., infections, undiagnosed pain), non-optimal levels of stimulation, undiagnosed depression, environmental triggers, and conditioning. As a result, psychologists are encouraged to consider and assess these potential causes to determine an appropriate treatment protocol. This requires considering interventions that might involve the individual, family or professional caregivers, institutions or policy makers (Camp & Nasser, 2003).
Cognitive impairment alone does not preclude the ability to benefit from various forms of psychotherapy. It is important to note that cognitive/behavioral interventions are effective in addressing dysphoria, agitation, anxiety, and apathy in persons with dementia (Teri et al., 2005). At more advanced stages of dementia, use of sensory stimulation often assists in addressing issues related to agitation or anxiety (Lin et al., 2009).
At all stages of dementia, apathy is the most common behavioral challenge facing caregivers. Therefore, provision of optimal stimulation and ensuring positive engagement are critical features of interventions to improve the quality of life of both persons with dementia and their caregivers.
Enabling family members to accept, support, and engage the person with dementia as he or she is now is an important challenge to address. It is also critically important that therapeutic goals be discussed directly with the individual who has dementia. This not only provides the respect and dignity that should be given any individual, but also provides highly relevant information regarding the individual’s understanding and attitude about the goal, his or her motivation in achieving the goal, and his or her willingness to expend time and energy working toward the goal.
Application . Psychologists strive to educate themselves regarding currently approved medical and behavioral treatments of dementia and age-related cognitive decline. This is a rapidly evolving area and both families and healthcare professionals can benefit from learning about best practices based on sound empirical evidence. Psychologists strive to recommend appropriate interventions to maximize individual function and minimize challenging behavior and emotional distress associated with dementia or age-related cognitive change. Psychologists seek to determine underlying environment, social, historical, psychological, functional and medical causes of emotional and behavioral disturbance associated with dementia. Individuals and families can be educated about these treatments, which can be offered to individuals as appropriate. Psychologists directly provide or assist other health care providers and lay caregivers, as well as organizations, to provide appropriate treatment and support to individuals with dementia and their caregivers.
9. Psychologists are aware that full evaluation of possible dementia is an interdisciplinary, holistic process involving other health care providers. Psychologists respect other professional perspectives and approaches. Psychologists communicate fully and refer appropriately to support integration of the full range of information for informing decisions about diagnosis, level of severity, and elements of the treatment plan.
Rationale . Traditional healthcare continues to be more reactive rather than focused on prevention and promotion of wellbeing (Epstein & Sherwood, 1996). Traditional healthcare may be provided in isolated settings with outdated systems of manual record-keeping. This exacerbates older persons vulnerability to fragmented care. Receiving conflicting diagnoses and care advice from different providers can demoralize individuals and their caregivers. The increasing burden of chronic and acute medical conditions in old age further combine to disempower individuals and providers alike (McWilliam, Brown, Carmichael, & Lehman, 1994). No single provider is ever likely to have all the essential information that can contribute to making an accurate diagnosis. An interdisciplinary team is most likely to provide all the essential information necessary to make an accurate diagnosis and develop a comprehensive treatment plan. Interdisciplinary teams adopt "an approach to care characterized by a high degree of collaboration across the various health professionals serving patients in assessment, treatment planning, treatment implementation, and outcome evaluation." (APA, 2008). An integrated approach to health care benefits older adults. These concerns apply to diagnoses of dementia and to intervention decisions regarding individuals with dementia and their caregivers.
Application . Psychologists strive to ensure that every effort is made to involve all relevant providers in the diagnostic process. Psychologists are encouraged to take proactive steps to develop collegial, interdisciplinary relationships with other health care providers serving the population for whom they routinely receive referrals for dementia assessment. With appropriate informed and written consent, information is shared across providers as needed to reach an accurate diagnosis and coordinate appropriate interventions. Psychologists are encouraged to make appropriate referrals to other members of an integrated health care team.
Conclusion
In 2010 approximately 40 million people in the U.S. are age 65 or older. This number is expected to double by 2050. As this cohort grows in number it also grows in diversity (AOA, 2008). Psychologists must be prepared to serve the needs of this population. Psychologists adhering to the guidelines enumerated herein can make significant contributions to the care and well-being of the rapidly expanding number of older persons confronted by age-related cognitive change or dementia.
Author notes : This revision of the 1998 "Guidelines for the Evaluation of Dementia and Age-Related Cognitive Decline" was completed by the APA Task Force to Update the Guidelines for the Evaluation of Dementia and Age-Related Cognitive Decline and approved as APA policy by the APA Council of Representatives in February 2011. Members of the APA Task Force to Update the Guidelines for the Evaluation of Dementia and Age-Related Cognitive Decline were Glenn Smith, PhD (Chair), Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Past President, APA Division 40; Cameron Camp, PhD, Linda-&-Camp, Inc., Solon, Ohio; Susan Cooley, PhD, Chief, Geriatric Research and Development and Chief, Dementia Initiatives, Office of Geriatrics & Extended Care, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs; Hector M. González, PhD, Institute of Gerontology and Family Medicine, Wayne State University; Paula Hartman-Stein, PhD, Independent Practitioner, Center for Healthy Aging, Kent, Ohio and Adjunct faculty, Lifespan Development and Educational Sciences, Kent State University; Asenath LaRue, PhD, Senior Scientist, Wisconsin Alzheimer’s Institute, University of Wisconsin, Member of the original Guideline Presidential Task Force; Nancy A. Pachana, PhD, School of Psychology and Co-Director, Ageing Mind Initiative, The University of Queensland, Australia; and, Antonette Zeiss, PhD, Acting Deputy Chief Patient Care Services Officer for Mental Health, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. The Task Force is thankful to the APA Committee on Aging for convening the Task Force and to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs for hosting conference calls to permit this work to advance. APA Office on Aging Director, Deborah DiGilio and assistant Susie Hwang provided outstanding administrative support.
The literature cited herein does not reflect a systematic meta-analysis or review of the literature but rather was selected by the panel to emphasize clinical best practices. Care was taken to avoid endorsing specific products, tools, or proprietary approaches. No direct financial support was provided for the development of these guidelines.
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Task Force to Update the Guidelines for the Evaluation of Dementia and Age-Related Cognitive Change
Adopted by the APA Council of Representatives on February 18, 2011
2012
APA Resolution on Combination Biomedical and Behavioral Approaches to Optimize HIV Prevention
APA resolution on combination biomedical and behavioral approaches to optimize HIV prevention
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in August 2019.
2014
Resolution on Interrogations of Criminal Suspects
Adopted by the Council of Representatives, August 2014. (Suggested citation is included with references.)
WHEREAS law enforcement officers, upon gaining a confession from a criminal suspect, often close their investigation, deem the crime solved, and sometimes overlook exculpatory evidence or other possible leads–even in cases in which the confession is internally inconsistent, contradicted by external evidence, or the product of coercive interrogation (Leo & Ofshe, 1998; Drizin & Leo, 2004; Findley & Scott, 2006; Hirsch, 2007; Kassin & Gudjonsson, 2004);
WHEREAS prosecutors, upon learning of a suspect's confession, tend to charge suspects with the highest number and types of offenses, set bail higher, and are far less likely to initiate or accept a plea bargain to a reduced charge (Leo & Ofshe, 1998; Drizin & Leo, 2004; but see Redlich, 2010);
WHEREAS many adults with mental disabilities and younger adolescents are limited in their understanding of the Constitutional rights to silence and to counsel, lack the capacity to weigh the consequences of a rights waiver, and are more likely to waive their rights (Cooper & Zapf, 2008; Rogers et al., 2007a; Clare & Gudjonsson, 1991; Everington & Fulero, 1999; Fulero & Everington, 1995; O'Connell, Garmoe & Goldstein, 2005; Abramovitch, Higgins-Biss & Biss, 1993; Abramovitch, Peterson-Badali & Rohan, 1995: Colwell,Cruise, Guy et al., 2005; Goldstein, Condie, Kalbeitzer et al., 2003; Grisso, 1980, 1981; Redlich, Silverman & Steiner, 2003; Viljoen, Klaver & Roesch, 2005; Viljoen & Roesch, 2005; Wall & Furlong, 1985; Clare & Gudjonsson, 1995: Everington & Fulero, 1999; O'Connell, Garmoe & Goldstein, 2005; Goldstein, Condie, Kalbeitzer et al., 2005; Redlich, Silverman & Steiner, 2003; Singh & Gudjonsson, 1992); a pattern that also afflicts ordinary adults who are under stress (Rogers, Gillard, Wooley, & Fiduccia, 2011; Scherr & Madon, 2013);
WHEREAS interrogations that are excessive in length, include the presentation of false evidence, or include implicit or explicit promises of leniency increase anxiety, create an incentive to escape the situation, mislead the suspect into believing that a confession is in one's best interests, and thereby increase the risk of false confessions (Drizin & Leo, 2004; Horselenberg, Merkelbach, & Josephs, 2003; Kassin & Kiechel, 1996; Kassin & McNall, 1991; Klaver et al., 2008; Leo & Ofshe, 1998; Ofshe & Leo, 1997a, 1997b; Nash & Wade, 2009; Perillo & Kassin, 2011; Redlich & Goodman, 2003 ; Russano et al., 2005; Swanner, Beike, & Cole, 2010; White, 2001);
WHEREAS innocent persons have falsely confessed to committing offenses of which they have been accused only later to be exonerated (Drizin & Leo, 2004; Gudjonsson, 1992, 2003; Kassin, 1997; Kassin & Gudjonsson, 2004; Lassiter, 2004; Lassiter & Meissner, 2010; Leo & Ofshe, 1998; Garrett, 2008; Scheck, Neufeld, & Dwyer, 2000; https://www.innocenceproject.org/);
WHEREAS confessions are particularly potent forms of evidence that jurors and others do not fully discount — even when they are judged to be coerced (Kassin & Neumann, 1997; Kassin & Sukel, 1997; Lassiter & Geers, 2004; Leo & Ofshe, 1998; Drizin & Leo, 2004; Kassin & Wrightsman, 1980; Neuschatz et al., 2008; Redlich, Ghetti, & Quas, 2008; Redlich, Quas, & Ghetti, 2008); Wallace & Kassin, 2012);
WHEREAS jurors and other triers of fact have difficulty distinguishing true and false confessions (Kassin, Norwick, & Meissner, 2005; Honts, Kassin, & Craig, in press) and whereas false confessions are highly counterintuitive (Leo & Liu, 2009; Levine, Kim, & Blair, 2010) and in part because these statements, & Blair, 2010) and in part because these statements, as seen in the confessions of defendants who were ultimately exonerated, typically contain vivid and accurate details about the offense and victim, facts that were not in the public domain, as well as other indicia of credibility (e.g., statements of motivation, apologies and remorse, corrected errors), indicating that the innocent confessor obtained the information from leading questions or other secondary sources of information (Garrett, 2010; Appleby, Hasel, & Kassin, 2008; Kassin, 2006; Leo, 2008; Leo & Ofshe, 1998, Ofshe & Leo 1997a, 1997b);
WHEREAS videotaping of interrogations in their entirety provides an objective and accurate audio-visual record of the interrogation, provides a vehicle by which to resolve disputes about the source of non-public details in a suspect's confession, and has the potential to deter interrogators from using inappropriate tactics and deter defense attorneys from making frivolous claims of police coercion (American Bar Association, 2004; Boetig, Vinson, & Weidel, 2006; Cassell, 1996a, 1996b; Drizin & Colgan, 2004; Geller, 1994; Gudjonsson, 2003; Kassin et al., 2010; Leo, 1996c; Slobogin, 2003; Sullivan, 2004; The Justice Project, 2007);
WHEREAS interrogations video recorded from a "neutral" camera perspective — one focusing attention equally on suspects and interrogators — produce less prejudiced judgments or interpretations of suspects' statements and behaviors than the more typical "suspect-focus" camera perspective that directs greater attention onto suspects than interrogators (Landström, Roos af Hjelmsäter, Granhag, 2007; Lassiter, 2002, 2010; Lassiter, Diamond, Schmidt, & Elek, 2007; Lassiter, Geers, Handley, Weiland, & Munhall, 2002; Lassiter, Geers, Munhall, Handley, & Beers, 2001; Lassiter, Ware, Lindberg, & Ratcliff, 2010;
WHEREAS, the findings set forth in this resolution regarding the phenomenon of false confessions are the product of established research methods that are widely accepted in the field of psychology, as evidenced by the AP-LS scientific review paper (Kassin et al., 2010) peer reviewed journals, and books that are cited in the resolution and its supporting references; and
WHEREAS, as a scientific and educational organization, the American Psychological Association's mission is in part to promote the application of sound research findings to advance the public welfare;
THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association recommends that all custodial interviews and interrogations of felony suspects be video recorded in their entirety and with a "neutral" camera angle that focuses equally on the suspect and interrogator;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends, recognizing that the risk of false confession is increased with extended interrogation times, that law enforcement agencies consider placing limits on the length of time that suspects are interrogated;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends that law enforcement agencies, prosecutors, and the courts recognize the risks of eliciting a false confession by interrogations that involve the presentation of false evidence;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends that police, prosecutors, and the courts recognize the risks of eliciting a false confession that involve minimization "themes" that communicate promises of leniency;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends that those who interrogate individuals who are young (with particular attention paid to developmental level and trauma history), cognitively impaired, those with impaired mental health functioning, or in other ways are vulnerable to manipulation receive special training regarding the risk of eliciting false confessions; and
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends that particularly vulnerable suspect populations, including youth, persons with developmental disabilities, and persons with mental illness, be provided special and professional protection during interrogations such as being accompanied and advised by an attorney or professional advocate.
Suggested Citation
American Psychological Association. (2014). Resolution on interrogations of criminal suspects. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/about/policy/interrogations
References
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Lassiter, G. D. (2010). Psychological science and sound public policy: Video recording of custodial interrogations. American Psychologist, 65, 768-779.
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Archived by APA Council of Representatives in May 2022. Rationale: Out of date and replaced by updated the 2022 APA Resolution on Interrogations of Criminal Suspects (PDF, 94KB)opens in new window.
2015
APA resolution on gender and sexual orientation diversity in children and adolescents in schools
APA resolution on gender and sexual orientation diversity in children and adolescents in schools
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2020.
Resolution on Violent Video Games
Adopted by the APA Council of Representatives in August 2015.
Video game use has become pervasive in the American child's life: More than 90% of U.S. children play some kind of video games; when considering only adolescents ages 12 - 17, that figure rises to 97% (Lenhart et.al, 2008; NPD Group, 2011;). Although high levels of video game use are often popularly associated with adolescence, children younger than age 8 who play video games spend a daily average of 69 minutes on handheld console games, 57 minutes on computer games, and 45 minutes on mobile games, including tablets (Rideout, 2013). Considering the vast number of children and youth who use video games and that more than 85% of video games on the market contain some form of violence, the public has understandably been concerned about the effects that using violent video games may have on individuals, especially children and adolescents.
News commentators often turn to violent video game use as a potential causal contributor to acts of mass homicide. The media point to perpetrators' gaming habits as either a reason that they have chosen to commit their crimes, or as a method of training. This practice extends at least as far back as the Columbine massacre (1999) and has more recently figured prominently in the investigation into and reporting of the Aurora, CO theatre shootings (2012), Sandy Hook massacre (2012), and Washington Navy Yard massacre (2013). This coverage has contributed to significant public discussion of the impacts of violent video game use. As a consequence of this popular perception, several efforts have been made to limit children's consumption of violent video games, to better educate parents about the effects of the content to which their children are being exposed, or both. Several jurisdictions have attempted to enact laws limiting the sale of violent video games to minors, and in 2011 the US Supreme Court considered the issue in Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association, concluding that the First Amendment fully protects violent speech, even for minors.
In keeping with the American Psychological Association's (APA) mission to advance the development, communication, and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society, the Task Force on Violent Media was formed to review the APA Resolution on Violence in Video Games and Interactive Media adopted in 2005 and the related literature in order to ensure that the APA's resolution on the topic continues to be informed by the best science currently available and that it accurately represents the research findings directly related to the topic. This Resolution is based on the Task Force's review and is an update of the 2005 Resolution.
Scientists have investigated the effects of violent video game use for more than two decades. Multiple meta-analyses of the research have been conducted. Quantitative reviews since APA's 2005 Resolution that have focused on the effects of violent video game use have found a direct association between violent video game use and aggressive outcomes (Anderson et al. 2010, Ferguson 2007a, Ferguson 2007b, Ferguson & Kilburn 2009). Although the effect sizes reported are all similar (0.19, 0.15, 0.08, and 0.16, respectively), the interpretations of these effects have varied dramatically, contributing to the public debate about the effects of violent video games.
The link between violent video game exposure and aggressive behavior is one of the most studied and best established. Since the earlier meta-analyses, this link continues to be a reliable finding and shows good multi-method consistency across various representations of both violent video game exposure and aggressive behavior (e.g., Moller & Krahe, 2009; Saleem, Anderson, & Gentile, 2012). Aggressive behavior examined in this research included experimental proxy paradigms, such as the administration of a noise blast to a confederate, and self-report questionnaires, peer nominations and teacher ratings of aggressiveness focused on behaviors including insults, threats, hitting, pushing, hair pulling, biting and other forms of verbal and physical aggression. The findings have also been seen over a range of samples, including those with older children, adolescent, and young adult participants. There is also consistency over time, in that the new findings are similar in effect size to those from past meta-analyses.
Similarly, the research conducted since the 2005 APA Resolution using aggressive cognitions and aggressive affect as outcomes also shows a direct effect of violent video game use (e. g., Hasan, Begue, Scharkow & Bushman, 2013; Shafer, 2012). Researchers have also continued to find that violent video game use is associated with decreases in socially desirable behavior such as prosocial behavior, empathy, and moral engagement (e.g., Arriaga, Monteiro & Esteves, 2011; Happ, Melzer & Steffgen, 2013).
The violent video game literature uses a variety of terms and definitions in considering aggression and aggressive outcomes, sometimes using "violence" and "aggression" interchangeably, or using "aggression" to represent the full range of aggressive outcomes studied, including multiple types and severity levels of associated behavior, cognitions, emotions, and neural processes. This breadth of coverage but lack of precision in terminology has contributed to some debate about the effects of violent video game use. In part, the numerous ways that violence and aggression have been considered stem from the multidisciplinary nature of the field. Epidemiologists, criminologists, physicians and others approach the phenomena of aggression and violence from different perspectives than do psychologists, and emphasize different definitions of the phenomena accordingly. Some disciplines are interested only in violence, and not other dimensions of aggression. In psychological research, aggression is usually conceptualized as behavior that is intended to harm another (see Baron & Richardson, 1994; Coie & Dodge, 1998; Huesmann & Taylor, 2006; VandenBos, 2007). Violence can be defined as an extreme form of aggression (see Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2000) or the intentional use of physical force or power, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in harm (Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zwi, & Lozano,2002 ).
Thus, all violence, including lethal violence, is aggression, but not all aggression is violence. This distinction is important for understanding this research literature, which has not focused on lethal violence as an outcome. Insufficient research has examined whether violent video game use causes lethal violence. The distinction is also important for considering the implications of the research and for interpreting popular press accounts of the research and its applicability to societal events.
Resolution
Consistent with the American Psychological Association's mission to advance the development, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives, this Resolution on Violent Video Games finds:
WHEREAS scientific research has demonstrated an association between violent video game use and both increases in aggressive behavior, aggressive affect, aggressive cognitions and decreases in prosocial behavior, empathy, and moral engagement;
WHEREAS there is convergence of research findings across multiple methods and multiple samples with multiple types of measurements demonstrating the association between violent video game use and both increases in aggressive behavior, aggressive affect, aggressive cognitions and decreases in prosocial behavior, empathy, and moral engagement;
WHEREAS all existing quantitative reviews of the violent video game literature have found a direct association between violent video game use and aggressive outcomes;
WHEREAS this body of research, including laboratory experiments that examine effects over short time spans following experimental manipulations and observational longitudinal studies lasting more than 2 years, has demonstrated that these effects persist over at least some time spans;
WHEREAS research suggests that the relation between violent video game use and increased aggressive outcomes remains after considering other known risk factors associated with aggressive outcomes;
WHEREAS although the number of studies directly examining the association between the amount of violent video game use and amount of change in adverse outcomes is still limited, existing research suggests that higher amounts of exposure are associated with higher levels of aggression and other adverse outcomes;
WHEREAS research demonstrates these effects for children older than 10 years, adolescents, and young adults, but very little research has included children younger than 10 years;
WHEREAS research has not adequately examined whether the association between violent video game use and aggressive outcomes differs for males and females;
WHEREAS research has not adequately included samples representative of the current population demographics;
WHEREAS research has not sufficiently examined the potential moderator effects of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or culture;
WHEREAS many factors are known to be risk factors for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition and aggressive affect, and reduced prosocial behavior, empathy and moral engagement, and violent video game use is one such risk factor;
Therefore,
BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association (APA) engage in public education and awareness activities disseminating these findings to children, parents, teachers, judges and other professionals working with children in schools and communities;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA support funding of basic and intervention research by the federal government and philanthropic organizations to address the following gaps in knowledge about the effects of violent video game use:
The association between violent video game use and negative outcomes for understudied ethnic and sociocultural populations who may be at increased risk for negative outcomes because of increased violent video game exposure or the presence of other risk factors for aggressive outcomes;The nature of the association between violent video game use and negative outcomes for males and females separately;The association between violent video game use and negative outcomes for school age and preschool age children;The relation between degree of exposure to violent video games and negative outcomes;The persistence of negative outcomes over time;The relation between game ratings and types, amounts, and degrees of violence present in violent video games;The relation between negative outcomes and game characteristics such as properties of the game, including type and degree of violence, how the game is played, and how the game is perceived by the player;The intersection of variables related to negative outcomes of violent video game use and the broader context of violence within the games, including choices about targets of violence, game themes, and the development and marketing of games;The impact of rapidly changing game technology and formats on users' experience and outcomes;The role of competition and cooperation in the association between violent video game use and negative outcomes; andThe role of media literacy in mediating negative effects associated with violent video game use;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA endorses the development and implementation of rigorously tested interventions that educate children, youth and families about the effects of violent video game use; and
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA strongly encourages the Entertainment Software Rating Board to refine the ESRB rating system specifically to reflect the levels and characteristics of violence in games in addition to the current global ratings.
Suggested Citation
American Psychological Association. (2015). Resolution on Violent Video Games.
References
American Psychological Association, Task Force on Violent Media. (2015). Technical report onthe review of the violent video game literature. Washington, DC: Author.
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Note: Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2020. Rationale: Out of date and replaced by updated 2020 APA Resolution on Violent Video Games (PDF, 60KB)opens in new window.
2017
Resolution on Palliative Care and End-of-life Issues and Justification
Resolution on Palliative Care and End-of-life Issues
Adopted by APA Council of Representatives in August 2017. (Suggested citation is included with references.)
Whereas the issues and terminology of end-of-life have evolved since the American Psychological Association (APA)'s 2001 Resolution on End-of-life Issues and Care; and
Whereas palliative care is a team-based approach to care focused on: improving the quality of life for individuals facing serious or life-limiting illness and their care partners (e.g., families of origin or families of choice); preventing and relieving suffering by means of early identification; thorough, culturallysensitive assessment and treatment of pain and physical, psychosocial, and spiritual problems; and by providing bereavement care (Kelley & Morrison, 2015; National Consensus Project for Quality Palliative Care, 2013); and
Whereas palliative care is appropriate at any age and at any stage of a serious illness, can be provided at the same time as disease-directed or curative treatment, and is not dependent on prognosis (World Health Organization [WHO], 2016); and
Whereas end-of-life or hospice care, which is often tied in the United States to the Hospice Medicare Benefit, focuses on palliative care for terminally ill individuals who may have only limited time to live and have elected no longer to pursue curative treatment for their underlying disease (Kelley & Morrison, 2015); and
Whereas most hospice programs are limited in their present structure and reimbursement mechanisms to meet the needs of children with serious and life-limiting illness and their families (National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization, 2001); and
Whereas many more individuals with terminal diagnoses across the lifespan are living longer than before and thus have more opportunity to make end-of-life decisions (Morrissey, Herr, & Levine, 2015; Murtagh et al., 2014); and
Whereas death has become more frequently the result of advanced serious illness that must be managed for weeks and often years, with multiple health, functional, and emotional changes occurring throughout the disease process (Institute of Medicine [IOM], 2014); and
Whereas individuals with advanced serious illness will grapple with multiple conditions that may interact in complex ways and will face a system of care that is often fragmented, uncoordinated and confusing (Byock, 2012; Coalition to Transform Advanced Care [C-TAC], 2015; IOM, 2014); and
Whereas the nature of death and dying has changed across the twentieth century, occurring primarily in an institutional setting rather than at home (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2005); and
Whereas systemic barriers continue to exist to integrating evidence-based treatment programs and practices into standards of care system-wide (Allison & Sudore, 2013; Lynch, 2013; Weaver et al., 2015); and
Whereas medical technology has advanced to the point where patients in hospitals infrequently die without a decision to withhold or withdraw life-supporting therapy (Gedge, Giacomini, & Cook, 2007; Lantos, 2011) with those decisions being psychologically complex for all parties involved, especially in the absence of advance directives; and
Whereas end-of-life decision making is complex, involving areas of ethics, religion, medicine, psychology, sociology, economics, the law, public policy, and other fields (Baergen, 2001; National Consensus Project for Quality Palliative Care, 2013; Wells-DiGregorio, 2008); and
Whereas some evidence suggests that there are fluctuations in the will to live (Chochinov, Tataryn, Clinch, & Dudgeon, 1999) and in wishes regarding life-sustaining treatments (Fried et al., 2006); and
Whereas autonomy is an important principle in the law and in medical and ethical aspects of decision making, but in and of itself is insufficient to capture the full range of complex psychosocial, medical, familial, financial, cultural, spiritual, and legal issues involved in palliative care and end-of-life decision making (Byock, 2009; Winzelberg, Hanson, & Tulsky, 2005); and
Whereas in the United States, end-of-life decisions are made in the context of significant social stratification related, but not limited to, age, culture, disability status, ethnicity, gender identity, geographic location, health status, immigration status, marital status, race/ethnicity, religion, sex, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and veteran status, leading to inequalities in access to resources such as basic health care and resources for in-home supported living (Canetto, 2011; Payne, 2016; Lee et al., 2017; Robinson, et al., 2009; Sue, 2001); and
Whereas severe health disparities in timely and adequate access to care profoundly influence the nature and availability of end-of-life care for underserved individuals and communities and, consequently, affect the concerns of individuals and their care partners making end-of-life care decisions (Johnson, 2013; Koffman et al., 2007; Lynch, 2013; Robinson et al., 2009; Williams et al., 2012); and
Whereas the 20 percent of the U.S. population living long-term with disability or chronic illness (e.g., HIV/AIDS) (Shorthill & Demarco, 2017) commonly experiences social stigma that can be further compounded by the stigma of approaching death, and end-of-life care offered to individuals with disabilities (e.g., often involving nursing home placement) may inadvertently compound their vulnerability by disrupting their carefully cultivated self-management and support systems (Stienstra, D'Aubin, & Derksen, 2012, thereby increasing social disconnection, lack of agency, and risk of abuse and coercion by caregivers (who may also have decisional authority); and
Whereas 42 percent of people with disabilities experience sexual abuse and 87 percent experience verbal abuse and inhumane practices in caregiving situations (Baladerian, Coleman, & Stream, 2013); and
Whereas over the next two decades, the number of individuals age 65 and older (the age group that encompasses the majority of people with advanced illness) will nearly double to more than 72 million, with racial and ethnic minority older adult populations projected to increase to 21.1 million in 2030 (Administration on Aging [AOA], 2015), thus significantly increasing the need for culturally competent palliative and hospice care; and
Whereas vulnerable populations of adults with diminished capacity for autonomous decision making and living with advanced serious illness may lack the ability to communicate medical decisions and may experience daily fluctuations in awareness or lucidity (American Bar Association [ABA] & APA, 2008; Stormoen, Almkvist, Eriksdotter, Sundstrom, & Tallberg, 2014; Trachsel, Hermann, & Biller-Adorno, 2015); and
Whereas there are 400,000 children in the United States with life limiting illness, with cancer as the leading cause of disease-related death for adolescents and young adults (Friebert, 2009; State Initiatives in End-of-life Care, 2002); and
Whereas survival with these illnesses has improved far less for 15 to 24-year-olds than it has for older individuals (Bleyer, O'Leary, Barr, & Ries, 2006; Institute of Medicine [IOM], 2013; Robison, 2011), and about one fourth of children with cancer will die prematurely (Murphy, Xu, & Kochanek, 2013; Vinchon, Baroncini, Leblond, & Delestret, 2011); and
Whereas individuals with serious or life-limiting illness often rely on family members (of origin or of choice) for care, and this care can be rewarding and also challenging and result in significant psychological and physical morbidity and strain, including economic strain, to the care partner (Morgan, Williams, Trussardi, & Gott, 2016; Roth et al., 2013; Rumpold et al., 2016; Vanderwerker, Laff, KadanLottick, McColl, & Prigerson, 2005; Wadhwa et al., 2013); and
Whereas care partners of individuals with serious or life-limiting illness often are at risk for complications associated with anticipatory grief and bereavement and many risk factors for grief and bereavement can be addressed through quality palliative and end-of-life care (Garrido & Prigerson, 2014; Hudson et al., 2014); and
Whereas for immigrant and first generation U.S. families, caregiving and end-of-life decisions may cross borders due to transnational circles of care, and health providers should be mindful of the implications of U.S. policies on caregivers and family decision makers who are either abroad or who hold different cultural views on palliative care and end-of-life decisions (Baldassar, 2011; Baldassar, 2017; Baldassar & Merla, 2013; Kilkey & Merla, 2014); and
Whereas diversity in human values, status, power, and resources leads to an equally diverse range of views and needs and power regarding palliative care and end-of-life care and decisions (Boucher, 2016); and
Whereas reasonable, well-informed people start from different values and priorities concerning what is valuable at the end-of-life, and can and do hold different positions regarding end-of-life care and goals of care (Crawley, 2005); and
Whereas there is significant public support for individual control over end-of-life decisions but support for hastening death is weakest among groups who express concerns about being pressured to die (e.g., older adults, people with disabilities, people with less education, people with fewer financial resources, women, racial and ethnic minorities) (Crawley, Marshall, Lo, & Koenig, 2002; Krakauer, Crenner, & Fox, 2002; Lyon et al., 2008; Phillips et al., 2000); and
Whereas the absence or avoidance of advance care planning results in substituted decisions for or against aggressive care near death that may be incongruent with individual values, and associated with greater symptom and financial burdens, reduced quality of life, and greater risk of psychiatric complications for care partners (Alexi et al., 2008; Detering, Reade, & Silvester, 2010; Sucore & Fried, 2010; Temel, Greer, Muzikansky, Gallagher, & Admane, 2010); and
Whereas individuals living with advanced serious illness and nearing death experience a range of symptoms that often are unrecognized and/or undertreated, including but not limited to pain, depression, anxiety, worry, existential distress, dyspnea/breathlessness, fatigue, and anorexia (Azuero, Allen, Kvale, Azuero, & Parmelee, 2014; Fisher et al., 2002; Hughes et al., 2016; Kamal, Nipp, Bull, Stinson, & Abernethy, 2015; Kissane, 2012; Moens, Higginson, & Harding, 2014; Yennurajalingam et al., 2013); and
Whereas these symptoms can lead to suffering that may result in requests for, or assent to, medical interventions that affect the timing of death (Ruijs, Kerkhof, van der Wal, & Onwuteaka-Philipsen, 2013); and
Whereas psychologists have begun the important work of developing, evaluating, and disseminating evidence-based psychological interventions for people with advanced serious illness and their care partners, yet to date these interventions are limited in scope and underutilized (Allen et al., 2014; Hudson et al., 2012; Kasl-Godley, King, & Quill, 2014; Kuhne et al., 2012; Northhouse, Katapodi, Song, Zhang, & Mood, 2010; Wallio & Twillman, 2010); and
Whereas behavioral and psychological issues intersect and interact with the biological, social, and spiritual issues faced by people with serious illness, and psychologists' skills can enhance and optimize communication and interventions delivered by professionals from other disciplines (Feldman, Sorocco, & Bratkovich, 2014; Sullivan, Mongoue-Tchokote, Mori, Goy, & Ganzini, 2016); and
Whereas there is increasing consumer demand for psychological services (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016-17) and need for addressing end-of-life stressors and decision making with psychologists' support (Murtagh et al, 2014; Nydegger, 2008); and
Whereas psychologists have many areas of competence including, but not limited to, assessment, intervention, teaching, consultation, research, and advocacy skills that could contribute to the science of palliative care and end-of-life issues and to the treatment and support of people with advanced serious or life-limiting illness, their significant others, and other health care providers (Carpenter, 2015; Connor, Lycan, & Schumacher, 2006; Gamino & Ritter, 2012; Golijani-Moghaddam, 2014; Johnson, Cramer, Conroy, & Gardner, 2014); and
Whereas psychologists possess these intervention, research, and teaching competencies and yet are underutilized due to reasons including, but not limited to, formal or informal exclusion from care systems and programs, lack of opportunities for reimbursement, perceptions that psychological services are not warranted, and lack of understanding by other providers regarding the specific skillset and competencies that psychologists provide near the end-of-life (Azuero et al., 2014; Haley, Larson, KaslGodley, Neimeyer, & Kwilosz, 2003; Patterson, Croom, Teverovsky, & Arnold, 2014); and
Whereas psychology has been integrated into interdisciplinary, palliative care teams in the Veterans Health Administration (VHA, 2016), but psychologists in clinical practice outside of the VHA have not typically been involved in palliative care and end-of-life decisions to the degree that they could be (Garrido, Penrod, & Prigerson 2014; Haley et al., 2003); and
Whereas current Medicare policy authorizes reimbursement for advance care planning conversations only for physicians, nurse practitioners, or their supervisees (Jones, Acevedo, Bull, & Kamal, 2016), yet psychologists trained in palliative and end-of-life care possess knowledge and skills to help people obtain the health information they need, effectively communicate questions to their providers, weigh the risks and benefits of different choices, reflect on their preferences and values, and communicate their wishes when contemplating end-of-life situations; and
Whereas there have been few systematic efforts to educate psychologists about end-of-life issues in comparison with the magnitude of the issue and opportunity (APA, 2000; Kasl-Godley, King, & Quill, 2014); and
Whereas core competencies in palliative and end-of-life care are now widely articulated and psychological issues are a core practice domain, yet psychologists remain largely absent from professional work groups involved in developing these competencies (Ryan et al., 2014); and
Whereas psychological research on palliative care and end-of-life issues is expanding but remains limited in comparison with the magnitude of the issue (Keall, Clayton, & Burtow, 2015; Naik, Martin, Moye, & Karel, 2016; Singer et al., 2016; Xiao, Kwong, Pang, & Mok, 2012); and
Whereas The National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR, 2013), the Coalition to Transform Advanced Care (C-TAC, 2015), and the Institute of Medicine (IOM, 2014) have identified gaps in compassionate science, including: (a) integrating behavioral and psychosocial sciences into palliative care; (b) developing a scientific basis for clinical practice for people with advanced serious illness of all ages, that is person- and family-centered; (c) relieving symptoms and suffering; (d) enhancing communication among persons with advanced serious illness, their care partners and clinicians; and (e) understanding decision making about care among persons with advanced serious illness; and
Whereas psychologists could assume a significant role in helping other health care providers understand and cope with the concerns and needs of individuals with serious or life-limiting illness and their care partners (Allen, Haley, Roff, Schmid, & Bergman, 2006; Gustin, Way, Wells-Di Gregorio, & McCallister, 2016); and
Whereas psychologists could be instrumental in supporting interprofessional public education efforts to increase health literacy and raise awareness of issues related to palliative and end-of-life care including advance care planning, symptom management, dying, death, grief, mourning, and loss (Higginson et al., 2014; Long, 2011); and
Whereas psychologists could assume a significant role in the development and implementation of standardized tools for measuring outcomes of palliative and end-of-life care (Kearns, Cornally, & Molloy, 2017); and
Whereas the practice of palliative and end-of-life care is, at its best, interprofessional to address the complex care needs of individuals and their care partners, and that collaborative practice operates from a biopsychosocial perspective to provide more patient-centered, comprehensive, ongoing assessment, treatment planning, and interventions in the most efficient and effective manner (APA, 2008; Kelly & Morrison, 2015; National Consensus Project for Quality Palliative Care, 2013); and
Whereas team-based health care results in higher quality care and interprofessional practice competencies are recognized as integral to palliative and end-of-life care, yet few professions, including psychology, have opportunities across all levels of professional education and development to train together, leaving them unprepared for the practice environments in which they will work (Interprofessional Education Collaborative Expert Panel, 2011; Ryan et al., 2014); and
Whereas a number of national and international organizations have issued their own policy statements and documents and have collaborated on developing guidance documents regarding end-of-life issues, often without the involvement of APA representatives or other psychologists, including The Clinical Practice Guidelines for Quality Palliative Care (The National Consensus Project for Quality Palliative Care, 2013), Dying in America: Improving Quality and Honoring Individual Preferences Near the End-of-life (IOM, 2014), and the White Paper on Standards and Norms for Hospice and Palliative Care in Europe (European Association for Palliative Care, 2009).
Therefore , be it resolved that the American Psychological Association, an organization committed to promoting the psychological well-being of individuals across the life span, actively
Promotes and supports psychology's involvement in palliative care and end-of-life issues in the United States of America and as invited on international platforms.
In order to advance this involvement, be it further resolved that the American Psychological Association:
Promotes and encourages research and education in the areas of palliative care and end-of-life issues within psychology training at all levels.
Encourages psychological research and the use of clinical skills to assess and address the psychological factors that have an impact on end-of-life decision making and will to live, including, but not limited to, untreated or undertreated distressing physical symptoms, depression, anxiety, loss of perceived dignity, existential distress, cognitive capacity, and increased social marginalization experienced by individuals already living with marginalized health conditions (including HIV/AIDS, substance abuse, mental health disorders) or disabilities.
Promotes psychologists' collaboration with other disciplines and organizations in the formulation and implementation of a behavioral and psychological research agenda on palliative care and end-of-life issues.
Advocates for funding for behavioral and psychological research on palliative care and end-of-life issues, collaborating when possible with other palliative and hospice-focused professional organizations.
Encourages psychology to bring its perspective in organizational systems to close research gaps and to implement best practices system-wide for persons across the lifespan with serious or life-limiting illness.
Promotes psychologists' acquisition of knowledge and skill competencies with respect to palliative care and end-of-life issues, including, but not limited to, developmentally-sensitive assessment and treatment of bio-psycho-social-spiritual aspects of advanced illness; dying, death, and bereavement care; communication and advance care planning; interprofessional practice; legal and ethical issues; and, sensitivity to all diversity and developmental dimensions that affect end-of-life experiences.
Promotes psychologists' acquisition of competence in interprofessional collaboration that is the foundation of palliative and end-of-life care.
Encourages psychologists working with minors living with advanced serious or life-limiting illness to obtain training at all levels in the area of ethics as applied to decision making by and care of minors who may have no legal rights, but are supported by public policy to be involved in decision making about their health care, consistent with the principles of justice and respect for peoples' rights and dignity.
Encourages psychologists working with vulnerable populations of adults with diminished capacity for autonomous decision making and living with advanced serious illness to obtain training at all levels in the area of ethics as applied to decision making by individuals with diminished capacity, consistent with the principles of justice and respect for peoples' rights and dignity.
Encourages all psychologists to obtain training at all levels in the area of ethics (including APA ethical standards), social justice, and legal issues as they apply to palliative care and end-of-life issues. In addition, psychologists working with vulnerable persons living with serious or life-limiting illness are encouraged to obtain training in ethics as they apply to their research and practice when working with individuals of all developmental stages and cultures with serious or life-limiting illness.
Encourages psychologists to be aware of their own attitudes about palliative care and end-of-life issues that may influence their clinical practice, research, education/training, and advocacy, and to recognize possible biases about quality of life or entitlement to resources based on group identities and their related social statuses, including, but not limited to, age, culture, criminal justice involvement, disability status, gender identity, geographic location, health status (including stigmatized conditions such as HIV, substance use, mental health disorders), immigration status, marital status, race/ethnicity, religion, sex, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and veteran status.
Encourages psychologists to obtain an understanding of how power, social status, and facets of identity, including, but not limited to, age, culture, criminal justice involvement, disability status, gender identity, geographic location, health status, immigration status, marital status, mental health status, race/ethnicity, religion, sex, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and veteran status contribute to disparities in palliative and end-of-life care. Specifically, psychologists are encouraged to apply this understanding to: (a) promote the elimination of inequities related to access to care, retention, and outcomes; (b) increase awareness of provider and patient biases; (c) improve communication about goals of care and related decisions; (d) expand recognition that social disenfranchisement of marginalized individuals may intensify at end-of-life in ways that influence decision making; and (e) understand the treatment preferences and values of individuals to assist with advance care planning and decision making.
Encourages psychologists to familiarize themselves with the roles and competencies of, and clinical care provided by, medical, social work, nursing, and chaplaincy and other professional colleagues related to end-of-life issues, decision making, and care.
Encourages psychologists' efforts to increase the understanding of other health care professionals with regard to behavioral, psychological, and diversity aspects of palliative care and end-of-life issues.
Promotes high-quality and effective palliative and end-of-life care that includes support for individuals across the lifespan with advanced serious illness and their care partners all along the illness trajectory; culturally sensitive assessment and treatment; thorough symptom management; promotion of mental health and psychological wellbeing; optimal expression of cognitive capabilities; facilitation of effective communication and assistance with advance care conversations and decision making that is shared and informed by individual/family needs, values, and preferences; bereavement care; and promotion of quality of life in all these activities.
Advocates for access to, and insurance coverage for, mental health services for seriously ill individuals and their care partners, across all settings of care and geographic locations, and for family members during bereavement.
Promotes and endorses public policies that provide for behavioral and psychosocial services for seriously ill individuals across the lifespan, and their care partners.
Advocates for expansion of Medicare coverage to include psychologists among those providers who may conduct advance care planning conversations and provide hospice consultations.
Advocates and endorses legislation to make public and private health, and mental health systems more flexible for meeting the health and mental health needs of children and adolescents with serious and life-limiting illness.
Advocates for public and private financial support of psychology and interprofessional training in palliative care and end-of-life issues at the pre-doctoral, internship, postdoctoral, and post-licensure level.
Advocates for psychologists' participation in national, state, and local interdisciplinary efforts to inform the development of policy and standards for palliative care and end-of-life issues including, but not limited to, involvement in research funding advisory groups, practice and treatment guideline and quality assurance outcomes development efforts, ethics committees, clinical care committees, and administrative work groups.
Supports interprofessional efforts to increase the competency of psychologists and other health care professionals in identifying and addressing the behavioral, psychological, and social aspects of serious or life-limiting illness.
Endorses the following principles on care for individuals with advanced serious illness as articulated in the Institute of Medicine Report entitled Dying in America: Improving Quality and Honoring Individual Preferences Near the End-of-life (IOM, 2014):
- Care for individuals with advanced serious illness should be comprehensive, of high quality, accessible, and available through governmental and private health insurers and care delivery programs. Comprehensive care is integrated, interdisciplinary, patient-centered and family oriented, coordinated across all providers and settings;
- Individuals should have the opportunity to engage in conversations about their health care, the results of which should be incorporated into ongoing care plans. Clinician-patient communication and advance care planning should be guided by quality standards that reflect evolving population and health system needs, are measurable, actionable and evidence-based, are adopted by both payer and health care delivery organizations, and linked to reimbursement. Professional societies should adopt policies that facilitate tying standards to reimbursement, licensing and credentialing;
- Educational institutions, credentialing bodies, accrediting boards, state regulatory agencies and health care delivery organizations should establish appropriate training, certification, and/or licensure requirements to strengthen basic palliative care knowledge and skills of all clinicians caring for individuals with advanced serious illness. This knowledge and these skills should include communication skills, interprofessional collaboration and symptom management;
- Federal, state, and private insurance and health care delivery programs should integrate and finance coordinated medical and social services necessary to support the provision of quality care consistent with the values and goals of individuals with advanced illness. Payment and health care delivery systems should collect and report quality measures, outcomes and costs regarding care for individuals with advanced illness and near the end-of-life;
- Public outreach, engagement, and education about care of individuals with advanced serious illness is needed to dispel myths and facilitate advance care planning and informed health care decision making. Renews its strong commitment and become a transformative force in the field of mental health and palliative care and end-of-life issues.
Suggested Citation
References
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Justification Resolution on Palliative Care and End-of-Life Issues
Purpose and Rationale for Resolution and Relevance to Psychology
In the United States, health science disciplines have extended the healthy lifespan, resulting for many in a period of living while dying that is marked by complex choices about end-of-life care, often in a state of advanced serious illness. The growing field of palliative and end-of-life care uses an interprofessional team-based approach to care, focused on improving the quality of life of individuals facing serious or life-limiting illness and their families, and preventing and relieving suffering by means of early identification and thorough assessment and treatment of pain and physical, psychosocial, and spiritual problems, and bereavement care. Excellent palliative care not only improves the quality of life, but can extend life when symptoms, including mental health, are appropriately treated. Inclusion of this element strengthens the argument for palliative care (Temel et al., 2010). Palliative care is appropriate at any age and at any stage of a serious illness. It can be provided at the same time as disease-directed or curative treatment and is not dependent on prognosis (WHO, 2016; CAPC, 2007). End-of-life care focuses on palliative care for those terminally ill patients and their family members who may have only months to live and have elected to no longer pursue curative treatment for their underlying disease. Recent concurrent care models, also referred to as open access or simultaneous care, allow patients to receive hospice, palliative care, and curative treatments concurrently (CMS, 2016).
Psychology has obvious relevance to palliative and end-of-life care, evident in the behavioral and psychosocial issues highlighted in the Institute of Medicine's 2014 Dying in America: Improving quality and honoring individual preferences near the end of life report. Yet psychology's attention to people with advanced illness, their caregivers, and the professionals who support them has not been commensurate with the need and opportunity. In 2001, APA issued two resolutions, the Resolution on End-of-life Care and the Resolution on Assisted Suicide, followed by the establishment of working groups charged with recommending and implementing strategies to increase psychology's visibility and role in end-of-life care, including the development of continuing education opportunities. However, since these efforts ended over ten years ago, there has been no critical examination of whether, and how, the roles of psychologists in the end of life arena have changed, nor guidance offered on how to increase the visibility of psychologists going forward in this area, despite the increasing number of psychologists working in palliative care settings and with individuals with serious and life-limiting illness.
The Resolution on Palliative Care and End of Life Issues incorporates recent empirical findings, in particular those regarding the influence of disability, race and ethnicity, age, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation and gender identity, and other aspects of diversity and health disparities on choices related to end of life and access to care. The resolution also clearly describes the contemporary roles psychologists play (and could play) in this arena, and provides recommendations for increasing psychology's visibility and contributions to palliative and end-of-life care, in the critical support of optimal quality of life during serious illness and at the end-of-life.
Importance to Psychology and Society as a Whole
Psychologists emerge from education and training programs with strengths including but not limited to: conducting and critically examining research; assessment of cognitive and overall psychological functioning; psychosocial and behavioral health interventions; and communication and supportive skills. These strengths are of critical importance in the palliative and end-of-life care arena to promote treatment team members' biopsychosocial appreciation of seriously ill or dying individuals and the delineation of values and goals of care. Psychology has unique and important roles to play in the following: 1) develop theory and conduct rigorous empirical research to expand and apply knowledge about needs, experiences, and effective psychosocial treatments of people who are seriously ill or dying; 2) train scholars, scientists, and practitioners in end-of-life issues; 3) apply psychology's expertise in assessment and treatment to improve the care of people with serious advanced illness; and 4) advocate for policies that ensure compassionate, comprehensive, and equitable care. Additionally, our nation is comprised of many diverse and intersecting cultures and values which interact with individual and family decision making during serious illness and end-of-life care (Baergen, 2001; National Consensus Project for Quality Palliative Care, 2013; Wells-DiGregorio, 2008). These decisions are made in the context of significant social stratification and unequal access to medical care (Canetto 2011; Lynch, 2013; Payne 2016). Psychologists are well-trained to promote awareness and redress of these inequities.
Excellent palliative and end-of-life care is optimally a product of the combined contributions of professionals in chaplaincy, medicine, nursing, psychiatry, psychology, social work, and rehabilitation, with a growing contingency of psychologists as members of or contributing to these interprofessional treatment teams. The resolution delineates the roles appropriate to psychologists in the continuum of palliative and end-of-life care, and strongly conveys APA's role in advocacy for the training and utilization of psychologists in this work through research, practice, and public policy.
Representative Scientific and Empirical Findings Related to the Resolution
The resolution includes citations to relevant scientific literature. Psychological research contributing to the field of palliative and end-of-life care is highlighted, as well as findings and recommendations from collaborating disciplines in medicine, social work, and spiritual care - since it is by definition a system of care that melds expertise across disciplines. The World Health Organization ([WHO] 2016), Center to Advance Palliative Care ([CAPC] 2016), and Institute of Medicine ([IOM] 2014) have been foundational in describing the nature of death and dying, and focusing international attention on gaps or inequities in care and implications for new directions, based on review of empirical evidence.
The literature documents that complexities of decision making during serious illness and end-of-life care involve nuanced blending of ethics with professional medical, legal, technological, and scholarly fields (Azuero, Allen, Kvale, Azuero, & Parmelee, 2014; Baergen 2001; Chochinov, Tataryn, Clinch, & Dudgeon, 1999; Fisher et al., 2002; Gedge, Giacomini & Cook 2007; Hughes et al., 2016; Kamal, Nipp, Bull, Stinson, & Abernethy, 2015; Kissane, 2012; Lantos 2011; Moens, Higginson, & Harding, 2014; Wells-DiGregorio, 2008; Yennurajalingam, et al., 2013). Although autonomy in the U.S. is a heavily weighted legal-ethical principle in decision making around goals of care during serious and life-limiting illness, it is of variable relevance and not sufficient to address the complexities across the diverse national weave of cultures, beliefs, and practices (Winzelberg, Hanson & Tulsky 2005). Public support for increased autonomy and control over the circumstances of death is increasing as reflected by legalization of physician assisted death in Oregon, Montana, Washington, Vermont, and California as of 2016, however this support is weakest among groups who express concerns about vulnerability to pressure to hasten death (Crawley, Marshall, Lo, & Koenig, 2002; Krakauer, Crenner, & Fox, 2002; Lyon et al., 2008; Phillips et al., 2000). In examining the experiences of diverse individuals during serious illness and end-of-life care, research has shown that age, setting, culture, race, ethnicity, sex, gender identity, income, education, marital status, geographic location, and religious differences are among the contributors to significant disparities in access to care (Byock, 2009; Canetto, 2011; Friebert, 2009; Johnson, 2013; Lynch, 2013; Payne, 2016; Sue, 2001; Robison 2011; Robinson et al., 2009; Winzelberg, Hanson, & Tulsky, 2005). For individuals who are seriously ill or dying, family members (of origin or of choice) play an important role in their care and advocacy for their treatment goals. Psychological research on these care partners' experiences describes the mixture of challenges and rewards that can contribute to psychological, physical, and financial strain for the care partner (Morgan, Williams, Trussardi & Gott 2016; Rumpold et al., 2016; Wadhwa et al., 2013; Vanderwerker, Laff, Kadan-Lottick, McColl, & Prigerson, 2005).
The current and potential roles of psychologists in the field of palliative and end-of-life care have also received growing attention in the literature, which describes the strengths of psychological training in knowledge, skills, and competencies required of psychologists in palliative and end-of-life care (Allen, Haley, Roff, Schmid, & Bergman, 2006; Azuero et al., 2014; Carpenter, 2015; Connor, Lycan, & Schumacher, 2006; Gamino & Ritter, 2012; Golijani-Moghaddam, 2014; Gustin, Way, Wells-Di Gregorio, & McCallister, 2016; Haley, Larson, Kasl-Godley, Neimeyer, & Kwilosz, 2003; Johnson, Cramer, Conroy, & Gardner, 2014; Patterson, Croom, Teverovsky, & Arnold, 2014). There is also recognition that psychologists are underutilized in palliative and end-of-life care outside of the Veterans Health Administration (Garrido, Penrod, & Prigerson 2014; Haley et al., 2003) with limited options for Medicare reimbursement (Jones, Acevedo, Bull & Kamal 2016). Gaps in education, training, consultation, research, and advocacy roles of psychologists in palliative and end-of-life care have been highlighted (Higginson et al., 2014; Interprofessional Education Collaborative Expert Panel, 2011; Kasl-Godley, King, & Quill, 2014; Ryan et al., 2014).
The Extent to which the Resolution is Consistent with APA's Core Values, and the Extent to which it Addresses Human Rights, Health and Welfare, and Ethics
The resolution calls for increased support for the acquisition and application of the unique strengths, skills, knowledge, and competencies of psychologists as members of interprofessional palliative and end-of-life care teams. The resolution calls for the application of psychological science to the practice of palliative and end-of-life care and for increased support of a psychological research agenda on palliative and end-of-life issues. Related to human rights, the resolution advocates for policies that address disparities in access to and appropriateness of care for diverse individuals, cultures, and values systems. The resolution is particularly attentive to ethical and psychosocial issues of delivering palliative care, extending through the developmental lifespan from minors to older adults who are seriously ill or facing a limited prognosis.
Likelihood of Constructive Impact on Public Opinion or Policy
Death and dying is without exception universal, touching on every individual. Attention to this issue has increased and the science and practice of palliative care has evolved since APA's 2001 Resolution on End-of-Life Issues and Care. We believe this updated resolution on Palliative Care and End of Life Issues will convey that the Association and its members continue to be engaged in this evolving and expanding area of concern. The resolution will increase understanding among other disciplines, policy makers, and the general public of the importance of addressing the mental/behavioral health needs of individuals with serious or life-limiting illness and their family members. In addition, it will highlight psychology's contribution to the science of palliative care and end-of-life issues and to the treatment and support of people with advanced serious or life-limiting illness, their caregivers, and other health care providers.
Implementation
The resolution will be broadly disseminated to APA constituencies, national health and professional organizations, and policy makers active in this area.
References
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Johnson, K. S. (2013). Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Palliative Care. Journal of Palliative Medicine , 16(11): 1329–1334. doi: 10.1089/jpm.2013.9468
Johnson, S. M., Cramer, R. J., Conroy, M. A., & Gardner, B. O. (2014). The role of and challenges for psychologists in physician assisted suicide. Death Studies, 38(9), 582-588. doi: 10.1080/07481187.2013.820228
Jones, C. A., Acevedo, J., Bull, J., & Kamal, A. H. (2016). Top 10 tips for using advance care planning codes in palliative medicine and beyond. Journal of Palliative Medicine , 19 (12), 1249-1253. doi: 10.1089/jpm.2016.0202
Kamal, A. H., Nipp, R. D., Bull, J., Stinson, C. S., & Abernethy, A. P. (2015). Symptom burden and performance status among community-dwelling patients with serious illness. Journal of Palliative Medicine , 18(6), 542-544. doi:10.1089/jpm.2014.0381
Kasl-Godley, J. E., King, D. A., & Quill, T. E. (2014). Opportunities for psychologists in palliative care: Working with patients and families across the disease continuum. American Psychologist, 69(4), 364-376. doi: 10.1037/a0036735
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Krakauer, E.L., Crenner, C., & Fox, K. (2002). Barriers to optimum end-of-life care for minority patients. Journal of American Geriatric Society, 50(1), 182-190. doi: 10.1046/j.1532-5415.2002.50027.x
Lantos, J. D. (2011). The interface of ethics and palliative care. In J. Wolf, P. S. Hinds, & B. M. Sourkes (Eds.). Textbook of Interdisciplinary Pediatric Palliative Care. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
Lynch (2013). Hospice and palliative care access issues in rural areas. American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Medicine, 30(2), 172-177. doi: 10.1177/1049909112444592
Lyon, M. E., Williams, P. L., Woods, E. R., Hutton, N., Butler, A. M., Sibinga, E., Brady, M. T., & Oleske, J. M. (2008). Do-not-resuscitate orders and/or hospice care, psychological health, and quality of life among children/adolescents with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 11(3), 459-469. doi: 10.1089/jpm.2007.0148
Moens, K., Higginson, I. J., & Harding, R. (2014). Are there differences in the prevalence of palliative care-related problems in people living with advanced cancer and eight non-cancer conditions? A systematic review. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 48(4), 660-677. doi: 10.1016/j.jpainsymman.201311009
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2020
Resolution on Ageism (PDF, 128KB)opens in new window
Policy archived by the APA Council of Representatives in August 2025.
2006
Three-year trial of having four ethnic minority associations as observers to council
Council asks that the following ethnic minority psychological associations be invited for the next three years, beginning in August 2006, to send a representative to serve as an observer to the APA Council of Representatives: Asian American Psychological Association, Association of Black Psychologists, Society of Indian Psychologists, and National Latina/o Psychological Association.
The observers from the ethnic minority psychological associations shall: (a) receive all except confidential materials provided to the Council of Representatives; (b) attend all Council sessions, workshops and caucuses with the exception of the Executive Sessions of Council; (c) be seated in a portion of the Council chamber designated for their use; (d) speak to agenda items of direct concern to their constituents, if specifically invited to do so by the Presiding Officer; (e) hold membership in both the Association represented and the American Psychological Association; and (f) receive financial assistance for their Council meeting attendance equal to that received by ethnic minority members of Council. The observers shall not be entitled to vote on matters before the Council.
Council further requests that the Policy and Planning Board (P&P) and Committee on the Structure and Function of Council (CSFC) develop Bylaw and Association Rules changes that would provide for the above ethnic minority psychological associations to have a voting seat on the APA Council.
2004
A three-year trial (2005-2007) in which ethnic minority representatives will be reimbursed for their expenses associated with attending Council
Because it believes that racial and ethnic diversity in the membership of Council has not been and is not currently satisfactory, Council finds that a program to provide incentives to Divisions and State, Provincial and Territorial Associations to elect ethnic minorities as Council representatives is in the best interest of APA.
Accordingly APA will reimburse any Division or State/Provincial/Territorial Psychological Association for the expenses incurred by representatives to Council who are ethnic minorities and who are elected during the years 2005-2007, to attend Council meetings. Reimbursement will be provided to Divisions, State, Provincial and Territorial Psychological Associations for transportation, hotel and meal expenses for both the February and August meetings of Council. APA strongly encourages Divisions and State, Provincial and Territorial Associations to submit one or more slates of nominees comprised solely of ethnic minorities.
For purposes of this program, ethnic minority identity is determined by self-identification as a member of one of the following four U.S. ethnic minority groups: African American/Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian American/Pacific Islander, and Hispanic / Latino.
Council requests that the Board conduct a review of the effectiveness of this proposal and provide a recommendation to Council in August 2007 regarding funding its continuance beyond the 2007 election.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: APA now reimburses all members of Council for their expenses related to attending Council meetings.
1975
Council adopted the following resolution on the Use of Psychiatric Diagnosis and Hospitalization to Suppress Political Dissent.
"The Council of Representatives of the American Psychological Association notes with appreciation that the Executive Committee of the International Union of Psychological Science, at its meeting in July of 1974, carefully considered our request that it place ‘on its own agenda and on the agenda of the next meeting of the IUPsyS Assembly a resolution condemning the use of psychiatric diagnosis and hospitalization to suppress dissent and a plan to undertake an international survey of the prevalence of this practice.'
We commend the IUPsyS Executive Committee for its statement on scientific and professional ethics and conduct, which it unanimously approved after discussion of the APA Council resolution. We fully support the "Executive Committee's decision to urge adoption and enforcement of codes of ethics by national societies, to collect and disseminate information on existing codes, and to encourage discussion of issues of scientific and professional ethics in various international forums. These plans represent a significant step in the direction of social and ethical responsibility within the international psychological community.
We must, however, express our profound disappointment in the Executive Committee's decision to sidestep the specific issue that we brought before it. We recognize the existence of cultural and political differences and can understand why an international organization may be reluctant to impose a single standard on all of its members. But there are certain minimal principles for the protection of human rights to which the entire international community is committed. We cannot accept the implication that an organization speaking for international psychology, a science and profession dedicated to the promotion of human welfare, must remain neutral toward the participation of psychologists in the suppression and violation of basic human rights. If we are to maintain the moral integrity and legitimacy of international psychology, we must be willing to take an unambiguous stand against blatant abuses of our own discipline.
The Council of the American Psychological Association, through APA's representatives to the IUPsyS Assembly, therefore reaffirms its request that the IUPsyS Executive Committee place our previous resolution on the agenda of the next meeting of the IUPsyS Assembly."
Note: Outdated policy developed based on a political event/incident that has passed.
1977
Support for the IUPsyS resolution concerning the use of psychiatric diagnosis in the suppression of political dissent
Council voted to accept the resolution of the International Union of Psychological Science of July 1976, concerning the use of psychiatric diagnosis in the suppression of political dissent, as meeting the spirit of the Council's resolution of 1973 and 1974, and to discharge the obligations placed upon the APA Representatives to IUPsyS in this matter.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Adopted in the context of the Cold War and in response to events taking place particularly in the Soviet Union; refers to Council resolutions from 1973 and 1974 that appear to no longer be in the Policy Manual; refers to APA Representatives to the IUPsyS. APA has not had representatives to the IUPsyS for many years — the U.S. is represented in the Union by the U.S. National Committee for Psychology housed at the National Academy of Sciences.
Zionism as a form of racism
The Council of Representatives of the American Psychological Association shares the widely expressed distress with the United Nations General Assembly Resolution which holds that Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination. This political distortion of the meaning of racism is unacceptable to scientific researchers and professional practitioners in psychology. Wishing to continue to support the principles on which the United Nations was founded, and concerned about the divisive effects of the process of politicalization, the American Psychological Association joins with other professional, scholarly, and scientific bodies calling on the United Nations to reassert its ideals, return to its original goals and halt the destructive politicalization of its specialized agencies. In addition, as an indication of its vigilance and concern, the Council urges the Board of Directors through its Committee on International Relations in Psychology to continue monitoring the evolving United Nations scene and to present periodically to the Council a status report with recommendations as appropriate.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: Adopted in reaction to the 1975 United Nations General Assembly Resolution #3379 that declared Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination. Committee on International Relations in Psychology recommends archiving the resolution because the UN subsequently revoked #3379 in 1991 with UN General Assembly Resolution 46/86.
2017
Resolution on Promoting Global Perspectives in U.S. Psychology
WHEREAS the psychology produced and taught in the United States remains largely U.S.-mainstream oriented and European-heritage grounded in its traditions, theories and evidence base, and often does not incorporate perspectives, content, and data relevant to other U. S. perspectives (e.g. rural, minority, indigenous, immigrant) or generated in other countries, (Arnett, 2008; Castillo, 2001; Draguns, 2001; Heinrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010 ; Legare & Harris, 2016; Nagai, 2007; Segal, Lonner & Berry, 1998); and
WHEREAS most research studies published in U.S. psychology journals, based on U.S. convenience samples (e.g., undergraduate students), are assumed to be representative of population demographics (Adair & Huynh, 2012; Arnett, 2008; Heinrich et al., 2010), and samples with data from outside the U.S. are often dismissed as non-representative (Canetto, Yang, Borrayo, & Timpson, 2003, Fine, 2012); and
WHEREAS psychologists outside the United States have generated frameworks, methods, practices, and research relevant in the United States and globally (Adair, 2006; Allwood & Berry, 2006; APA, 2004; Christopher, et al., 2014; Cheung, 2012; Kitayama & Cohen, 2010; Silbereisen, Ritchie & Panday, 2014; Van de Vijver, 2013); and
WHEREAS the majority of studies published in U.S. psychology journals utilize quantitative methods, although qualitative, participatory or community-based methods may be better suited for cross cultural research and although there is increased visibility of and attention to mixed methods research ( Den Hartog , & Dickson , 2004; Denzin & Lincoln, 2001; Karasz 2011; Psaki, 2016; Sparrow & Davis, 2000); and
WHEREAS assessment methods and interventions primarily developed and normed in English, with samples from high income countries, have often been used widely throughout the world without considering cultural differences that affect assessment and intervention validity and without the use of strategies to ensure fair use across groups ( Achenbach, et al., 2008; Braun, Fine, Greif & Devenny, 2010; Dana, 2000; Hambleton & Zenisky, 2011; Hill, Pace & Robbins, 2010; Mezzich, 2002; Nakane & Nakane, 2002); and
WHEREAS psychologists have an ethical responsibility to understand and consider the cultural values, mores, history, and policies of the societies and countries to which they apply U.S.-generated research, guidelines, or practices (American Psychological Association, 2002; Berry, 2013; Bernal, Jimenez-Chafey & Domenech, 2009; Dadlani, Overtree, & Perry-Jenkins, 2012); and
WHEREAS U.S. psychology would benefit from the expansion of its knowledge base through the inclusion of global perspectives, theories, research findings, and practices from outside the U.S. (Adair, Coelho, & Luna, 2002; Arnett, 2008; Brock, 2006; Heinrich, Heine & Norenzayan, 2010; Legare & Harris, 2016; Lutsky, et al, 2005; Marsella, 2009); and
WHEREAS it is important to recognize that a comprehensive global perspective combines worldwide, transnational and intercultural themes, encompassing societies, nations and countries; recognition of variety and diversity within and across societies, nations, and countries; and recognition of variety and diversity in individual and group experiences within those societies, nations and countries; and
WHEREAS high-income countries, including the U.S., are becoming increasingly global ( Banks, 2004; Fearon, 2003; Fisher, 2013 ; Hugo, 2005; Marsella & Pedersen, 2002; Woolf, Hulsizer & McCarthy, 2002); and
WHEREAS partnerships across countries, cultural groups, and disciplines have promise for reciprocal benefit and increased synergy in solving global problems and promoting new discoveries (Chin & Trimble, 2014; Chiu & Ying-Yi Hong, 2005; APA, 2011, Committee, 2014; National Research Council, 2014); and
WHEREAS many U.S. psychological organizations promote international engagement;
THEREFORE, be it resolved that the American Psychological Association will:
1. Promote inquiry that includes comprehensive global perspectives and content in psychological theory, practice, education, advocacy and policy.
2. Encourage critical reflection on the meaning and use of psychological constructs and definitions that are assumed to be universal and generalizable.
3. Encourage the development and dissemination of sound assessment and intervention methodologies and education that respect local communities and are grounded in ethical principles of psychology.
4. Acknowledge and consider research findings, publications, training programs, guidelines, and regulatory processes developed outside the United States.
5. Recommend language changes in APA communications and publications to avoid U.S.-centric perspectives and to include global and diversity perspectives. Examples of these language changes include:
a. Use "in the United States" for research, tests, training curricula, and practices that are developed and tested with U.S. samples;
b. Include "the global implications" of research findings, tests, and practices where relevant;
6. Encourage psychologists to use language that reflects awareness of global frameworks. For example:
a. Evaluate language in statements of research findings, opinions, policies and conclusions to ensure that these statements do not present U.S. perspectives as though they were universal and universally generalizable. Restrict the use of the term "Western" to geographical location. "Western" should not be used to refer to ideas or experiences from Europe or the United States (as in "western culture").
b. Replace terms such as "exhaustive literature search" with a more precise description of which databases were searched. When databases in languages other than English are searched provide information for accessing those databases.
c. Be explicit about the national origin of the literature reviewed in literature summaries and note where the data were collected.
d. Be cautious of claims of universality or generalizability beyond the specific populations studied. Make statements about "people in general" only when theory or evidence are about a representative global population.
e. Be mindful of not assuming U.S. norms or U.S. readership when using terms such as "we" or "our" or "us."
7. Recommend that APA boards and committees routinely and systematically incorporate comprehensive global perspectives in their work and develop criteria against which to evaluate this impact:
a. Strategies might include assessing whether a statement, policy or guideline is intended to refer to the U.S. only or to be generalizable, asking whether statements have referenced the international literature, or reflecting on whether U.S. definitions of populations of population dimensions (such as dimensions of diversity) are universally applicable to the issue at hand.
b. Evaluation criteria might include attention to language (as noted in #5), source of references, inclusion of examples from outside the U.S. context, and the like.
8. Promote collaborative international partnerships grounded in a comprehensive global perspective; initiatives that facilitate international partnerships; training in global competencies; and develop guidance and best practices for ethically sound, culturally responsive international collaborations.
9. Encourage psychologists to understand that international collaborations are often influenced by power hierarchies, and that dominant frameworks marginalize subordinate frameworks on global and local levels.
10. Encourage U.S. undergraduate and graduate psychology programs to promote opportunities for students to learn other languages and experience other cultures.
11. Encourage U. S. psychologists to learn and use local languages in conducting professional work in communities domestically and internationally.
12. Promote comprehensive global focused curricula for high school, undergraduate, and graduate psychology.
13. Promote comprehensive global perspectives across association activities including publication practices, public interest, science, education, and professional initiatives.
Suggested Citation
American Psychological Association. (2017). Resolution on Promoting Global Perspectives in U.S. Psychology. Retrieved from: http:://www.apa.org/about/policy/global-perspectives
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1994
Council voted to implement the recommendations contained in the Finance Committee Report to Council on "Responsible Spending" dated June 1994. The recommendations will be implemented on a phased schedule as appropriate.
Note: This policy is reviewed and revised periodically with the approval of Council.
2000
Council voted to approve a 4ドル dues increase from 215ドル to 219ドル for the 2001 dues year.
Note: Dues increases are considered annually by Council.
2000
Member dues increases linked to the CPI-U
Council voted to approve instituting the practice of increasing the APA dues annually by an amount linked to the consumer price index for all urban consumers (CPI-U).
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: In June 2014 the Board of Directors voted to discontinue using the Consumer Price Index as an index for dues adjustments.
Affiliate dues increases linked to the CPI-U
Council voted to approve instituting the practice of increasing the graduate student affiliate fees annually by an amount linked to the consumer price index for all urban consumers (CPI-U) and that the revenues generated from this increase be added to the APAGS budget. Council specifically approved a 1ドル graduate student affiliate fee increase from 40ドル to 41ドル for the 2003 dues year.
Archived by APA Council of Representatives in February 2016. Rationale: In June 2014 the Board of Directors voted to discontinue using the Consumer Price Index as an index for dues adjustments.