05. Complex Fields

Gyokhan Kochmarla edited this page Nov 16, 2025 · 1 revision

HoloGen supports complex-valued optical fields throughout the hologram generation pipeline, enabling more realistic and physics-accurate synthetic data for machine learning applications. This document explains the different field representations, how to use them, and when each is appropriate.

Field Representations Overview

Optical fields in holography are fundamentally complex-valued, containing both amplitude and phase information. HoloGen supports four different representations of these fields:

1. Intensity Representation

What it is: The squared magnitude of the complex field, representing the detected light power.

I = |E|2 = A2

When to use:

Classical holography ML applications where only intensity is recorded
Backward compatibility with existing intensity-only workflows
When phase information is not needed or available
Training models for intensity-based reconstruction methods

Characteristics:

Real-valued (non-negative)
Phase information is lost
Matches what typical cameras record
Default representation for backward compatibility

Example use case: Training a CNN to reconstruct object shapes from inline hologram intensity patterns.

2. Amplitude Representation

What it is: The magnitude of the complex field, representing the field strength.

A = |E|

When to use:

Amplitude-based reconstruction methods
When you need field strength without phase
Intermediate processing steps
Visualizing field magnitude

Characteristics:

Real-valued (non-negative)
Phase information is lost
Square root of intensity
Preserves more dynamic range than intensity

Example use case: Training models for amplitude-based phase retrieval algorithms.

3. Phase Representation

What it is: The phase angle of the complex field in radians.

φ = arg(E) ∈ [-π, π]

When to use:

Quantitative phase imaging (QPI) applications
Phase-contrast microscopy simulations
When amplitude is uniform or unimportant
Training phase unwrapping or phase retrieval models

Characteristics:

Real-valued (range: -π to π)
Amplitude information is lost (assumed uniform)
Critical for transparent sample imaging
Wraps at ±π boundaries

Example use case: Generating training data for biological cell imaging where cells are transparent and only modulate phase.

4. Complex Representation

What it is: The full complex field with both amplitude and phase.

E = A·exp(iφ) = real + i·imag

When to use:

Physics-aware ML models that process full optical fields
When both amplitude and phase are important
Holographic reconstruction algorithms
Preserving complete field information through pipeline
Advanced applications requiring full wave information

Characteristics:

Complex-valued (real + imaginary components)
Contains complete field information
No information loss
Enables full wave optics simulations
Larger storage requirements (2x memory)

Example use case: Training neural networks for holographic autofocusing or aberration correction that operate on complex fields.

Visual Comparison

The different representations capture different aspects of the optical field:

Original Complex Field: E = 0.8·exp(i·π/4)
├─ Intensity: I = 0.64
├─ Amplitude: A = 0.8
├─ Phase: φ = 0.785 rad (45°)
└─ Complex: E = 0.566 + 0.566i

For a simple circular object:

Amplitude-only object (absorbing circle):

Intensity: Dark circle on bright background
Amplitude: Smooth transition from 0 to 1
Phase: Uniform (zero everywhere)
Complex: Real-valued field

Phase-only object (transparent circle with phase shift):

Intensity: Uniform (no contrast!)
Amplitude: Uniform (1.0 everywhere)
Phase: Step function (0 outside, π/2 inside)
Complex: Pure phase modulation

Mixed object (partially absorbing with phase shift):

Intensity: Partial contrast
Amplitude: Varies with absorption
Phase: Varies with optical path length
Complex: Full amplitude-phase modulation

Conversion Between Representations

HoloGen provides utilities to convert between representations:

from hologen.utils.fields import complex_to_representation
from hologen.types import FieldRepresentation
# Convert complex field to different representations
intensity = complex_to_representation(field, FieldRepresentation.INTENSITY)
amplitude = complex_to_representation(field, FieldRepresentation.AMPLITUDE)
phase = complex_to_representation(field, FieldRepresentation.PHASE)

Important: Converting from intensity, amplitude, or phase back to complex results in information loss:

Intensity → Complex: Phase is assumed zero
Amplitude → Complex: Phase is assumed zero
Phase → Complex: Amplitude is assumed unity (1.0)

Only complex → complex conversion is lossless.

Choosing the Right Representation

Use this decision tree to select the appropriate representation:

Do you need phase information?
- No → Use Intensity (default, most compatible)
- Yes → Continue to step 2
Do you need amplitude information?
- No (uniform amplitude) → Use Phase
- Yes → Continue to step 3
Are you training physics-aware models?
- Yes → Use Complex (full information)
- No → Use Amplitude or Intensity depending on your reconstruction method
Storage and memory constraints?
- Tight constraints → Use Intensity or Amplitude (half the size)
- No constraints → Use Complex (preserves all information)

Performance Considerations

Representation	Memory Usage	Information Content	Compatibility
Intensity	1x (baseline)	Low (magnitude2)	High (legacy)
Amplitude	1x (baseline)	Medium (magnitude)	Medium
Phase	1x (baseline)	Medium (angle)	Low
Complex	2x (baseline)	High (complete)	Low (new)

Memory example for ×ばつ512 images:

Intensity/Amplitude/Phase: ~2 MB (float64) or ~1 MB (float32)
Complex: ~4 MB (complex128) or ~2 MB (complex64)

Next Steps

Complex Object Generation - Learn how to generate phase-only and mixed objects
Complex Hologram Export - Understand file formats and loading data
CLI Usage Examples - See command-line examples
API Reference - Detailed API documentation

Complex Object Generation

HoloGen can generate three types of object domains: amplitude-only, phase-only, and complex (mixed amplitude-phase). This section explains how to generate each type and when to use them.

Object Types

Amplitude-Only Objects

Amplitude-only objects modulate the amplitude of transmitted light while leaving phase unchanged (zero phase).

Physical interpretation: Absorbing or scattering samples (e.g., stained biological samples, printed patterns, metal particles)

Mathematical representation:

E(x,y) = A(x,y)·exp(i·0) = A(x,y)

Code example:

from hologen.shapes import CircleGenerator
from hologen.types import GridSpec
import numpy as np
# Create grid and generator
grid = GridSpec(height=512, width=512, pixel_pitch=6.4e-6)
generator = CircleGenerator(radius_range=(20e-6, 50e-6))
rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
# Generate amplitude-only object
complex_field = generator.generate_complex(
 grid=grid,
 rng=rng,
 mode="amplitude",
 phase_shift=0.0 # Not used for amplitude mode
)
# Result: complex field with varying amplitude, zero phase
print(f"Amplitude range: [{np.abs(complex_field).min():.2f}, {np.abs(complex_field).max():.2f}]")
print(f"Phase range: [{np.angle(complex_field).min():.2f}, {np.angle(complex_field).max():.2f}]")
# Output: Amplitude range: [0.00, 1.00], Phase range: [0.00, 0.00]

Phase-Only Objects

Phase-only objects modulate the phase of transmitted light while maintaining uniform amplitude.

Physical interpretation: Transparent samples with varying refractive index or thickness (e.g., biological cells, phase masks, transparent polymers)

Mathematical representation:

E(x,y) = 1.0·exp(i·φ(x,y))

Code example:

from hologen.shapes import CircleGenerator
from hologen.types import GridSpec
import numpy as np
# Create grid and generator
grid = GridSpec(height=512, width=512, pixel_pitch=6.4e-6)
generator = CircleGenerator(radius_range=(20e-6, 50e-6))
rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
# Generate phase-only object with π/2 phase shift
complex_field = generator.generate_complex(
 grid=grid,
 rng=rng,
 mode="phase",
 phase_shift=np.pi/2 # 90-degree phase shift inside circle
)
# Result: complex field with uniform amplitude, varying phase
print(f"Amplitude range: [{np.abs(complex_field).min():.2f}, {np.abs(complex_field).max():.2f}]")
print(f"Phase range: [{np.angle(complex_field).min():.2f}, {np.angle(complex_field).max():.2f}]")
# Output: Amplitude range: [1.00, 1.00], Phase range: [0.00, 1.57]

Complex (Mixed) Objects

Complex objects modulate both amplitude and phase simultaneously.

Physical interpretation: Samples with both absorption and refractive index variation (e.g., partially stained cells, composite materials)

Note: Full mixed mode is reserved for future extension. Current implementation supports amplitude-only and phase-only modes.

Phase Shift Parameter

The phase_shift parameter controls the phase difference between the object and background for phase-only objects.

Valid range: [0, 2π] radians (0 to 6.28)

Common values:

π/4 (0.785 rad, 45°): Small phase shift, subtle contrast
π/2 (1.571 rad, 90°): Quarter-wave shift, good contrast
π (3.142 rad, 180°): Half-wave shift, maximum contrast
3π/2 (4.712 rad, 270°): Three-quarter wave shift

Physical meaning: The phase shift represents the optical path difference between light passing through the object versus the background:

×ばつ (n1 - n0) ×ばつ d">

φ = (2π/λ) ×ばつ (n1 - n0) ×ばつ d

Where:

λ = wavelength
n1 = refractive index of object
n0 = refractive index of background (typically 1.0 for air)
d = object thickness

Example: For a biological cell in water:

λ = 532 nm (green laser)
n1 = 1.38 (cell cytoplasm)
n0 = 1.33 (water)
d = 5 μm (cell thickness)

Phase shift: φ = (2π/532e-9) ×ばつ (1.38 - 1.33) ×ばつ 5e-6 ≈ 0.59 rad ≈ π/5

Choosing phase_shift:

# Subtle phase contrast (thin samples)
phase_shift = np.pi / 4 # 45 degrees
# Moderate phase contrast (typical cells)
phase_shift = np.pi / 2 # 90 degrees (default)
# Strong phase contrast (thick samples)
phase_shift = np.pi # 180 degrees
# Very strong contrast (phase masks)
phase_shift = 3 * np.pi / 2 # 270 degrees

Supported Shape Generators

All shape generators support complex field generation:

from hologen.shapes import (
 CircleGenerator,
 RectangleGenerator,
 RingGenerator,
 CircleCheckerGenerator,
 RectangleCheckerGenerator,
 EllipseCheckerGenerator
)
# Each generator has generate_complex() method
generators = [
 CircleGenerator(radius_range=(20e-6, 50e-6)),
 RectangleGenerator(width_range=(30e-6, 60e-6), height_range=(30e-6, 60e-6)),
 RingGenerator(inner_radius_range=(15e-6, 25e-6), outer_radius_range=(30e-6, 50e-6)),
 CircleCheckerGenerator(radius_range=(40e-6, 80e-6), num_divisions=8),
 RectangleCheckerGenerator(width_range=(50e-6, 100e-6), height_range=(50e-6, 100e-6), num_divisions=8),
 EllipseCheckerGenerator(semi_major_range=(40e-6, 80e-6), semi_minor_range=(30e-6, 60e-6), num_divisions=8)
]
# Generate phase-only objects with each shape
for generator in generators:
 field = generator.generate_complex(
 grid=grid,
 rng=rng,
 mode="phase",
 phase_shift=np.pi/2
 )

Complete Pipeline Example

Here's a complete example generating phase-only objects and complex holograms:

from hologen import *
from hologen.converters import ObjectDomainProducer, ObjectToHologramConverter, HologramDatasetGenerator
from hologen.holography.inline import InlineHolographyStrategy
from hologen.shapes import CircleGenerator
from hologen.types import (
 GridSpec, OpticalConfig, HolographyConfig, HolographyMethod,
 FieldRepresentation, OutputConfig
)
from hologen.utils.io import ComplexFieldWriter
from pathlib import Path
import numpy as np
# Configuration
grid = GridSpec(height=512, width=512, pixel_pitch=6.4e-6)
optics = OpticalConfig(wavelength=532e-9, propagation_distance=0.05)
config = HolographyConfig(grid=grid, optics=optics, method=HolographyMethod.INLINE)
# Output configuration for complex fields
output_config = OutputConfig(
 object_representation=FieldRepresentation.PHASE,
 hologram_representation=FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX,
 reconstruction_representation=FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX
)
# Create pipeline components
shape_generator = CircleGenerator(radius_range=(20e-6, 50e-6))
object_producer = ObjectDomainProducer(
 generator=shape_generator,
 phase_shift=np.pi/2, # 90-degree phase shift
 mode="phase" # Phase-only objects
)
strategy = InlineHolographyStrategy()
converter = ObjectToHologramConverter(
 strategy_mapping={HolographyMethod.INLINE: strategy},
 output_config=output_config
)
# Generate dataset
rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
dataset_generator = HologramDatasetGenerator(
 object_producer=object_producer,
 converter=converter,
 config=config
)
# Write to disk
writer = ComplexFieldWriter(save_preview=True, phase_colormap="twilight")
samples = dataset_generator.generate(count=10, rng=rng)
writer.save(samples, output_dir=Path("phase_objects_dataset"))

Validation

HoloGen automatically validates phase values to ensure they're in the valid range [-π, π]:

from hologen.utils.fields import validate_phase_range, PhaseRangeError
# This will raise PhaseRangeError if phase is out of range
try:
 validate_phase_range(phase_array)
except PhaseRangeError as e:
 print(f"Invalid phase values: {e}")

Tips for Complex Object Generation

Start with amplitude-only: If you're new to complex fields, start with amplitude-only objects (default behavior) before moving to phase-only.
Use moderate phase shifts: For biological samples, π/2 to π is typically realistic. Larger shifts may not be physically meaningful.
Consider your application:
- Amplitude-only: Classical holography, absorbing samples
- Phase-only: Quantitative phase imaging, transparent samples
- Complex: Advanced applications requiring both
Validate your data: Always check that generated fields have expected properties (uniform amplitude for phase-only, zero phase for amplitude-only).
Memory usage: Complex fields use 2x memory compared to intensity. For large datasets, consider generating in batches.

Complex Hologram Export

HoloGen exports complex field data in two formats: NumPy .npz archives for numerical processing and PNG images for visualization. This section explains the file structure and how to load data in ML pipelines.

NumPy .npz File Structure

The .npz format stores arrays and metadata in a compressed archive. The structure varies by field representation:

Complex Representation

Stores real and imaginary components separately:

# File: sample_00000_circle_hologram.npz
{
 'real': ndarray, # Real component (float64, shape: [H, W])
 'imag': ndarray, # Imaginary component (float64, shape: [H, W])
 'representation': 'complex', # String identifier
 'wavelength': 532e-9, # Optical wavelength in meters
 'propagation_distance': 0.05 # Propagation distance in meters
}

Loading example:

import numpy as np
# Load complex hologram
data = np.load('sample_00000_circle_hologram.npz')
hologram = data['real'] + 1j * data['imag']
# Access metadata
wavelength = float(data['wavelength'])
distance = float(data['propagation_distance'])
print(f"Hologram shape: {hologram.shape}")
print(f"Hologram dtype: {hologram.dtype}")
print(f"Wavelength: {wavelength*1e9:.1f} nm")

Amplitude Representation

Stores magnitude only:

# File: sample_00000_circle_hologram.npz
{
 'amplitude': ndarray, # Amplitude (float64, shape: [H, W])
 'representation': 'amplitude',
 'wavelength': 532e-9,
 'propagation_distance': 0.05
}

Loading example:

data = np.load('sample_00000_circle_hologram.npz')
amplitude = data['amplitude']

Phase Representation

Stores phase angle in radians:

# File: sample_00000_circle_hologram.npz
{
 'phase': ndarray, # Phase in radians (float64, shape: [H, W])
 'representation': 'phase',
 'wavelength': 532e-9,
 'propagation_distance': 0.05
}

Loading example:

data = np.load('sample_00000_circle_hologram.npz')
phase = data['phase'] # Range: [-π, π]

Intensity Representation (Legacy)

Backward-compatible format for intensity-only data:

# File: sample_00000_circle.npz
{
 'object': ndarray, # Object intensity (float64, shape: [H, W])
 'hologram': ndarray, # Hologram intensity (float64, shape: [H, W])
 'reconstruction': ndarray # Reconstruction intensity (float64, shape: [H, W])
}

Loading example:

data = np.load('sample_00000_circle.npz')
object_intensity = data['object']
hologram_intensity = data['hologram']
reconstruction = data['reconstruction']

PNG Export

PNG files provide visual previews of the data. The export behavior depends on the field representation:

Complex Representation

Generates two PNG files per field:

*_amplitude.png: Amplitude visualization (grayscale, 8-bit)
*_phase.png: Phase visualization (colormap, 8-bit)

File naming example:

sample_00000_circle_object_amplitude.png
sample_00000_circle_object_phase.png
sample_00000_circle_hologram_amplitude.png
sample_00000_circle_hologram_phase.png
sample_00000_circle_reconstruction_amplitude.png
sample_00000_circle_reconstruction_phase.png

Amplitude PNG encoding:

Amplitude values normalized to [0, 255]
Linear mapping: pixel = 255 * (amplitude / amplitude.max())
Grayscale 8-bit PNG

Phase PNG encoding:

Phase values mapped from [-π, π] to [0, 255]
Linear mapping: pixel = 255 * (phase + π) / (2π)
Optional colormap applied (default: "twilight")
8-bit PNG (grayscale or RGB if colormap used)

Amplitude, Phase, or Intensity Representation

Generates one PNG file per field:

Single grayscale image
Values normalized to [0, 255]

Loading Complex Data in ML Pipelines

PyTorch DataLoader

import torch
from torch.utils.data import Dataset, DataLoader
import numpy as np
from pathlib import Path
class ComplexHologramDataset(Dataset):
 """PyTorch dataset for complex hologram data."""
 
 def __init__(self, data_dir: Path):
 self.data_dir = Path(data_dir)
 self.samples = sorted(self.data_dir.glob("*_hologram.npz"))
 
 def __len__(self):
 return len(self.samples)
 
 def __getitem__(self, idx):
 # Load hologram
 data = np.load(self.samples[idx])
 
 if 'real' in data and 'imag' in data:
 # Complex representation
 hologram = data['real'] + 1j * data['imag']
 
 # Convert to 2-channel tensor (real, imag)
 hologram_tensor = torch.stack([
 torch.from_numpy(data['real']).float(),
 torch.from_numpy(data['imag']).float()
 ], dim=0)
 else:
 # Intensity representation (legacy)
 hologram = data['hologram']
 hologram_tensor = torch.from_numpy(hologram).float().unsqueeze(0)
 
 # Load corresponding object
 object_path = self.samples[idx].parent / self.samples[idx].name.replace('_hologram', '_object')
 object_data = np.load(object_path)
 
 if 'real' in object_data and 'imag' in object_data:
 object_tensor = torch.stack([
 torch.from_numpy(object_data['real']).float(),
 torch.from_numpy(object_data['imag']).float()
 ], dim=0)
 else:
 object_tensor = torch.from_numpy(object_data['object']).float().unsqueeze(0)
 
 return hologram_tensor, object_tensor
# Usage
dataset = ComplexHologramDataset(Path("phase_objects_dataset/npz"))
dataloader = DataLoader(dataset, batch_size=16, shuffle=True, num_workers=4)
for hologram_batch, object_batch in dataloader:
 # hologram_batch shape: [batch_size, 2, height, width] for complex
 # or [batch_size, 1, height, width] for intensity
 print(f"Hologram batch shape: {hologram_batch.shape}")
 break

TensorFlow/Keras Dataset

import tensorflow as tf
import numpy as np
from pathlib import Path
def load_complex_sample(hologram_path, object_path):
 """Load a single complex hologram-object pair."""
 # Load hologram
 hologram_data = np.load(hologram_path.numpy().decode())
 if b'real' in hologram_data.files and b'imag' in hologram_data.files:
 hologram = np.stack([hologram_data['real'], hologram_data['imag']], axis=-1)
 else:
 hologram = hologram_data['hologram'][..., np.newaxis]
 
 # Load object
 object_data = np.load(object_path.numpy().decode())
 if b'real' in object_data.files and b'imag' in object_data.files:
 obj = np.stack([object_data['real'], object_data['imag']], axis=-1)
 else:
 obj = object_data['object'][..., np.newaxis]
 
 return hologram.astype(np.float32), obj.astype(np.float32)
# Create dataset
data_dir = Path("phase_objects_dataset/npz")
hologram_paths = sorted(data_dir.glob("*_hologram.npz"))
object_paths = [str(p).replace('_hologram', '_object') for p in hologram_paths]
dataset = tf.data.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((
 [str(p) for p in hologram_paths],
 object_paths
))
dataset = dataset.map(
 lambda h, o: tf.py_function(
 load_complex_sample,
 [h, o],
 [tf.float32, tf.float32]
 ),
 num_parallel_calls=tf.data.AUTOTUNE
)
dataset = dataset.batch(16).prefetch(tf.data.AUTOTUNE)
# Usage
for hologram_batch, object_batch in dataset:
 # hologram_batch shape: [batch_size, height, width, 2] for complex
 # or [batch_size, height, width, 1] for intensity
 print(f"Hologram batch shape: {hologram_batch.shape}")
 break

NumPy/Scikit-learn Pipeline

import numpy as np
from pathlib import Path
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
def load_dataset(data_dir: Path):
 """Load entire dataset into memory."""
 data_dir = Path(data_dir)
 hologram_files = sorted(data_dir.glob("*_hologram.npz"))
 
 holograms = []
 objects = []
 
 for hologram_path in hologram_files:
 # Load hologram
 h_data = np.load(hologram_path)
 if 'real' in h_data and 'imag' in h_data:
 hologram = h_data['real'] + 1j * h_data['imag']
 else:
 hologram = h_data['hologram']
 
 # Load object
 object_path = hologram_path.parent / hologram_path.name.replace('_hologram', '_object')
 o_data = np.load(object_path)
 if 'real' in o_data and 'imag' in o_data:
 obj = o_data['real'] + 1j * o_data['imag']
 else:
 obj = o_data['object']
 
 holograms.append(hologram)
 objects.append(obj)
 
 return np.array(holograms), np.array(objects)
# Load and split
X, y = load_dataset(Path("phase_objects_dataset/npz"))
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=42)
print(f"Training set: {X_train.shape}, dtype: {X_train.dtype}")
print(f"Test set: {X_test.shape}, dtype: {X_test.dtype}")

Utility Function for Loading

HoloGen provides a utility function for loading samples:

from hologen.utils.io import load_complex_sample
# Load a complex sample (auto-detects format)
sample = load_complex_sample(Path("phase_objects_dataset/npz/sample_00000_circle.npz"))
# Returns ComplexObjectSample or ObjectSample depending on format
if hasattr(sample, 'field'):
 # Complex sample
 print(f"Complex field shape: {sample.field.shape}")
 print(f"Representation: {sample.representation}")
else:
 # Legacy intensity sample
 print(f"Intensity shape: {sample.pixels.shape}")

File Organization

ComplexFieldWriter organizes files in a structured directory:

output_dir/
├── npz/
│ ├── sample_00000_circle_object.npz
│ ├── sample_00000_circle_hologram.npz
│ ├── sample_00000_circle_reconstruction.npz
│ ├── sample_00001_ring_object.npz
│ ├── sample_00001_ring_hologram.npz
│ └── ...
└── preview/
 ├── object/
 │ ├── sample_00000_circle_object_amplitude.png
 │ ├── sample_00000_circle_object_phase.png
 │ └── ...
 ├── hologram/
 │ ├── sample_00000_circle_hologram_amplitude.png
 │ ├── sample_00000_circle_hologram_phase.png
 │ └── ...
 └── reconstruction/
 ├── sample_00000_circle_reconstruction_amplitude.png
 ├── sample_00000_circle_reconstruction_phase.png
 └── ...

Best Practices

Check representation type: Always check the 'representation' field in .npz files to determine how to load the data.
Handle both formats: Write loaders that can handle both legacy intensity and new complex formats for backward compatibility.
Normalize appropriately:
- Amplitude: Normalize by max value or use fixed normalization
- Phase: Already in [-π, π], may need wrapping for some applications
- Intensity: Normalize by max or use percentile-based normalization
Memory management: Complex fields use 2x memory. For large datasets, use generators or load in batches.
Validate loaded data:

# Check for NaN or Inf
assert np.isfinite(hologram).all(), "Hologram contains non-finite values"
# Check phase range
phase = np.angle(hologram)
assert np.all((-np.pi <= phase) & (phase <= np.pi)), "Phase out of range"
# Check amplitude is non-negative
amplitude = np.abs(hologram)
assert np.all(amplitude >= 0), "Amplitude is negative"

Use appropriate dtypes:
- complex128 for high precision (default)
- complex64 for memory efficiency (half the size)
- Convert after loading if needed: hologram.astype(np.complex64)

CLI Usage Examples

The generate_dataset.py script supports complex field generation through command-line arguments. This section provides examples for common use cases.

New Command-Line Arguments

--object-type {amplitude,phase,complex}
 Type of object domain representation
 Default: amplitude
 
--output-domain {intensity,amplitude,phase,complex}
 Type of hologram output representation
 Default: intensity (backward compatible)
 
--phase-shift FLOAT
 Phase shift in radians for phase-only objects
 Default: 1.5708 (π/2, 90 degrees)
 Valid range: [0, 2π]

Basic Examples

Example 1: Amplitude Objects with Intensity Output (Default/Legacy)

Generate traditional intensity-only holograms from amplitude objects:

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 100 \
 --output ./dataset_intensity \
 --method inline \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05

This is the default behavior and maintains backward compatibility.

Example 2: Phase-Only Objects with Complex Output

Generate phase-only objects (transparent samples) with full complex hologram output:

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 100 \
 --output ./dataset_phase_complex \
 --method inline \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05 \
 --object-type phase \
 --output-domain complex \
 --phase-shift 1.5708

Use case: Quantitative phase imaging, biological cell imaging

Example 3: Phase-Only Objects with Intensity Output

Generate phase-only objects but export only intensity (for phase contrast imaging):

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 100 \
 --output ./dataset_phase_intensity \
 --method inline \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05 \
 --object-type phase \
 --output-domain intensity \
 --phase-shift 1.5708

Use case: Training models for phase contrast microscopy where only intensity is recorded

Example 4: Amplitude Objects with Complex Output

Generate amplitude objects with full complex hologram output:

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 100 \
 --output ./dataset_amplitude_complex \
 --method inline \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05 \
 --object-type amplitude \
 --output-domain complex

Use case: Physics-aware models that need full field information even for absorbing samples

Advanced Examples

Example 5: Off-Axis Holography with Complex Fields

Generate off-axis holograms with complex output:

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 100 \
 --output ./dataset_offaxis_complex \
 --method off_axis \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05 \
 --carrier-frequency-x 1e6 \
 --carrier-frequency-y 0 \
 --object-type phase \
 --output-domain complex \
 --phase-shift 1.5708

Use case: Off-axis holography with phase objects

Example 6: Large Phase Shift for Strong Contrast

Generate phase objects with large phase shift (π radians):

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 100 \
 --output ./dataset_large_phase \
 --method inline \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05 \
 --object-type phase \
 --output-domain complex \
 --phase-shift 3.14159

Use case: Thick samples or large refractive index differences

Example 7: Small Phase Shift for Subtle Contrast

Generate phase objects with small phase shift (π/4 radians):

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 100 \
 --output ./dataset_small_phase \
 --method inline \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05 \
 --object-type phase \
 --output-domain complex \
 --phase-shift 0.7854

Use case: Thin samples or small refractive index differences

Example 8: Amplitude-Only Output

Generate holograms with amplitude-only output (no phase):

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 100 \
 --output ./dataset_amplitude_only \
 --method inline \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05 \
 --object-type amplitude \
 --output-domain amplitude

Use case: Amplitude-based reconstruction methods

Example 9: Phase-Only Output

Generate holograms with phase-only output (no amplitude):

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 100 \
 --output ./dataset_phase_only \
 --method inline \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05 \
 --object-type phase \
 --output-domain phase \
 --phase-shift 1.5708

Use case: Phase retrieval algorithms, quantitative phase imaging

Combining with Noise Models

Complex fields work seamlessly with noise models:

Example 10: Phase Objects with Sensor Noise

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 100 \
 --output ./dataset_phase_noisy \
 --method inline \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05 \
 --object-type phase \
 --output-domain complex \
 --phase-shift 1.5708 \
 --sensor-read-noise 3.0 \
 --sensor-shot-noise \
 --sensor-bit-depth 12

Note: Noise is applied to the intensity representation, then the complex field is reconstructed preserving phase.

Example 11: Phase Objects with Speckle Noise

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 100 \
 --output ./dataset_phase_speckle \
 --method inline \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05 \
 --object-type phase \
 --output-domain complex \
 --phase-shift 1.5708 \
 --speckle-contrast 0.8

Example 12: Complete Realistic Simulation

Combine phase objects, complex output, and comprehensive noise:

python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 1000 \
 --output ./dataset_realistic \
 --method inline \
 --height 512 \
 --width 512 \
 --pixel-pitch 6.4e-6 \
 --wavelength 532e-9 \
 --distance 0.05 \
 --object-type phase \
 --output-domain complex \
 --phase-shift 1.5708 \
 --speckle-contrast 0.8 \
 --sensor-read-noise 3.0 \
 --sensor-shot-noise \
 --sensor-dark-current 0.5 \
 --sensor-bit-depth 12 \
 --aberration-defocus 0.5 \
 --aberration-astigmatism 0.3

Use case: Most realistic simulation for training robust ML models

Output Domain Combinations

Here's a matrix of valid combinations:

Object Type	Output Domain	Use Case
amplitude	intensity	Default, backward compatible
amplitude	amplitude	Amplitude-based reconstruction
amplitude	phase	Not recommended (phase is zero)
amplitude	complex	Physics-aware models
phase	intensity	Phase contrast imaging
phase	amplitude	Not recommended (amplitude is uniform)
phase	phase	Quantitative phase imaging
phase	complex	Full field QPI

Validation and Troubleshooting

Check Generated Files

# List generated files
ls -lh dataset_phase_complex/npz/
# Check .npz contents
python -c "import numpy as np; data = np.load('dataset_phase_complex/npz/sample_00000_circle_hologram.npz'); print(data.files)"
# Verify complex data
python -c "
import numpy as np
data = np.load('dataset_phase_complex/npz/sample_00000_circle_hologram.npz')
if 'real' in data and 'imag' in data:
 field = data['real'] + 1j * data['imag']
 print(f'Complex field shape: {field.shape}')
 print(f'Amplitude range: [{np.abs(field).min():.3f}, {np.abs(field).max():.3f}]')
 print(f'Phase range: [{np.angle(field).min():.3f}, {np.angle(field).max():.3f}]')
"

Verify Phase-Only Objects

# Check that phase-only objects have uniform amplitude
python -c "
import numpy as np
data = np.load('dataset_phase_complex/npz/sample_00000_circle_object.npz')
field = data['real'] + 1j * data['imag']
amplitude = np.abs(field)
print(f'Amplitude std: {amplitude.std():.6f}') # Should be ~0
print(f'Amplitude mean: {amplitude.mean():.6f}') # Should be ~1.0
"

Common Errors

Error: ValueError: Invalid output-domain value Solution: Use one of: intensity, amplitude, phase, complex

Error: PhaseRangeError: Phase values outside [-π, π] Solution: Check --phase-shift is in [0, 2π] range

Error: FileNotFoundError: No such file or directory Solution: Ensure output directory exists or script will create it

Performance Considerations

# Small dataset for testing (fast)
python scripts/generate_dataset.py --samples 10 --output ./test --object-type phase --output-domain complex
# Medium dataset for development (moderate)
python scripts/generate_dataset.py --samples 100 --output ./dev --object-type phase --output-domain complex
# Large dataset for training (slow, ~1-2 samples/sec)
python scripts/generate_dataset.py --samples 10000 --output ./train --object-type phase --output-domain complex
# Very large dataset (use batching)
for i in {0..9}; do
 python scripts/generate_dataset.py \
 --samples 1000 \
 --output ./train_batch_$i \
 --object-type phase \
 --output-domain complex
done

Quick Reference

# Minimal command (defaults)
python scripts/generate_dataset.py
# Phase objects, complex output
python scripts/generate_dataset.py --object-type phase --output-domain complex
# Custom phase shift
python scripts/generate_dataset.py --object-type phase --phase-shift 3.14159
# With noise
python scripts/generate_dataset.py --object-type phase --output-domain complex --sensor-shot-noise
# Off-axis
python scripts/generate_dataset.py --method off_axis --object-type phase --output-domain complex
# Help
python scripts/generate_dataset.py --help

API Reference

This section documents the new classes, functions, and protocols introduced for complex field support.

Type Definitions (hologen.types)

FieldRepresentation

Enumeration of field representation types.

from enum import StrEnum, auto, unique
@unique
class FieldRepresentation(StrEnum):
 """Enumeration of optical field representation types."""
 
 INTENSITY = auto() # |E|2 - squared magnitude
 AMPLITUDE = auto() # |E| - magnitude
 PHASE = auto() # arg(E) - phase angle in radians
 COMPLEX = auto() # E = real + i*imag - full complex field

Usage:

from hologen.types import FieldRepresentation
# Specify representation
rep = FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX
print(rep) # Output: 'complex'
# Compare representations
if rep == FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX:
 print("Using complex representation")

ComplexObjectSample

Dataclass representing an object-domain sample with complex field.

@dataclass(slots=True)
class ComplexObjectSample:
 """Object-domain sample with complex field representation.

 Attributes:
 name: Sample identifier (e.g., 'sample_00000_circle')
 field: Complex-valued 2D array representing the object field
 representation: Type of field representation
 """
 name: str
 field: ArrayComplex # Complex128 array, shape: [H, W]
 representation: FieldRepresentation

Usage:

from hologen.types import ComplexObjectSample, FieldRepresentation
import numpy as np
# Create a complex object sample
sample = ComplexObjectSample(
 name="my_sample",
 field=np.ones((512, 512), dtype=np.complex128),
 representation=FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX
)
# Access properties
print(f"Sample name: {sample.name}")
print(f"Field shape: {sample.field.shape}")
print(f"Field dtype: {sample.field.dtype}")
print(f"Representation: {sample.representation}")

ComplexHologramSample

Dataclass representing a complete hologram sample with complex fields.

@dataclass(slots=True)
class ComplexHologramSample:
 """Hologram sample with complex field support.

 Attributes:
 object_sample: The original object-domain sample
 hologram_field: Complex hologram field at sensor plane
 hologram_representation: Representation type for hologram
 reconstruction_field: Reconstructed object field
 reconstruction_representation: Representation type for reconstruction
 """
 object_sample: ComplexObjectSample
 hologram_field: ArrayComplex
 hologram_representation: FieldRepresentation
 reconstruction_field: ArrayComplex
 reconstruction_representation: FieldRepresentation

Usage:

from hologen.types import ComplexHologramSample
# Access sample components
print(f"Object name: {sample.object_sample.name}")
print(f"Hologram shape: {sample.hologram_field.shape}")
print(f"Hologram representation: {sample.hologram_representation}")
print(f"Reconstruction shape: {sample.reconstruction_field.shape}")
# Extract specific representations
hologram_intensity = np.abs(sample.hologram_field) ** 2
hologram_phase = np.angle(sample.hologram_field)

OutputConfig

Configuration for output field representations.

@dataclass(slots=True)
class OutputConfig:
 """Configuration for output field representations.

 Attributes:
 object_representation: Desired representation for object field
 hologram_representation: Desired representation for hologram field
 reconstruction_representation: Desired representation for reconstruction

 Default values maintain backward compatibility (intensity-only).
 """
 object_representation: FieldRepresentation = FieldRepresentation.INTENSITY
 hologram_representation: FieldRepresentation = FieldRepresentation.INTENSITY
 reconstruction_representation: FieldRepresentation = FieldRepresentation.INTENSITY

Usage:

from hologen.types import OutputConfig, FieldRepresentation
# Default configuration (backward compatible)
config = OutputConfig()
print(config.hologram_representation) # Output: 'intensity'
# Custom configuration for complex output
config = OutputConfig(
 object_representation=FieldRepresentation.PHASE,
 hologram_representation=FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX,
 reconstruction_representation=FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX
)
# Use in converter
converter = ObjectToHologramConverter(
 strategy_mapping=strategies,
 output_config=config
)

Field Utilities (hologen.utils.fields)

complex_to_representation()

Convert complex field to requested representation.

def complex_to_representation(
 field: ArrayComplex,
 representation: FieldRepresentation
) -> ArrayFloat | ArrayComplex:
 """Convert complex field to requested representation.

 Args:
 field: Complex-valued field array
 representation: Target representation type

 Returns:
 Converted field (real-valued for intensity/amplitude/phase,
 complex-valued for complex representation)

 Raises:
 FieldRepresentationError: If representation is invalid

 Examples:
 >>> field = np.array([[1+1j, 2+0j], [0+1j, 1-1j]])
 >>> intensity = complex_to_representation(field, FieldRepresentation.INTENSITY)
 >>> amplitude = complex_to_representation(field, FieldRepresentation.AMPLITUDE)
 >>> phase = complex_to_representation(field, FieldRepresentation.PHASE)
 """

Usage:

from hologen.utils.fields import complex_to_representation
from hologen.types import FieldRepresentation
import numpy as np
# Create complex field
field = np.exp(1j * np.linspace(0, 2*np.pi, 100).reshape(10, 10))
# Convert to different representations
intensity = complex_to_representation(field, FieldRepresentation.INTENSITY)
amplitude = complex_to_representation(field, FieldRepresentation.AMPLITUDE)
phase = complex_to_representation(field, FieldRepresentation.PHASE)
complex_copy = complex_to_representation(field, FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX)
print(f"Intensity range: [{intensity.min():.3f}, {intensity.max():.3f}]")
print(f"Amplitude range: [{amplitude.min():.3f}, {amplitude.max():.3f}]")
print(f"Phase range: [{phase.min():.3f}, {phase.max():.3f}]")

amplitude_phase_to_complex()

Construct complex field from amplitude and phase arrays.

def amplitude_phase_to_complex(
 amplitude: ArrayFloat,
 phase: ArrayFloat
) -> ArrayComplex:
 """Construct complex field from amplitude and phase.

 Args:
 amplitude: Amplitude array (non-negative)
 phase: Phase array in radians (typically [-π, π])

 Returns:
 Complex field: amplitude * exp(i * phase)

 Examples:
 >>> amplitude = np.ones((10, 10))
 >>> phase = np.random.uniform(-np.pi, np.pi, (10, 10))
 >>> field = amplitude_phase_to_complex(amplitude, phase)
 """

Usage:

from hologen.utils.fields import amplitude_phase_to_complex
import numpy as np
# Create amplitude and phase separately
amplitude = np.random.rand(512, 512)
phase = np.random.uniform(-np.pi, np.pi, (512, 512))
# Combine into complex field
field = amplitude_phase_to_complex(amplitude, phase)
# Verify round-trip
recovered_amplitude = np.abs(field)
recovered_phase = np.angle(field)
assert np.allclose(amplitude, recovered_amplitude)
assert np.allclose(phase, recovered_phase)

validate_phase_range()

Validate that phase values are within valid range.

def validate_phase_range(phase: ArrayFloat) -> None:
 """Validate phase values are in [-π, π] range.

 Args:
 phase: Phase array in radians

 Raises:
 PhaseRangeError: If any phase values are outside [-π, π]

 Examples:
 >>> phase = np.array([0, np.pi/2, np.pi, -np.pi])
 >>> validate_phase_range(phase) # OK
 >>> 
 >>> invalid_phase = np.array([0, 4*np.pi])
 >>> validate_phase_range(invalid_phase) # Raises PhaseRangeError
 """

Usage:

from hologen.utils.fields import validate_phase_range, PhaseRangeError
import numpy as np
# Valid phase
phase = np.random.uniform(-np.pi, np.pi, (512, 512))
validate_phase_range(phase) # No error
# Invalid phase
try:
 invalid_phase = np.array([0, 5*np.pi])
 validate_phase_range(invalid_phase)
except PhaseRangeError as e:
 print(f"Validation failed: {e}")

Exception Classes

class FieldRepresentationError(ValueError):
 """Raised when field representation is invalid or incompatible."""
 pass
class PhaseRangeError(ValueError):
 """Raised when phase values are outside [-π, π] range."""
 pass

Shape Generators (hologen.shapes)

BaseShapeGenerator.generate_complex()

Generate complex-valued object field.

def generate_complex(
 self,
 grid: GridSpec,
 rng: Generator,
 phase_shift: float = 0.0,
 mode: str = "amplitude"
) -> ArrayComplex:
 """Generate complex-valued object field.

 Args:
 grid: Grid specification defining spatial dimensions
 rng: NumPy random number generator
 phase_shift: Phase modulation in radians for phase-only mode
 mode: Generation mode - "amplitude" or "phase"

 Returns:
 Complex field array with shape [grid.height, grid.width]

 Raises:
 ValueError: If mode is invalid
 PhaseRangeError: If phase_shift is outside [0, 2π]

 Examples:
 >>> generator = CircleGenerator(radius_range=(20e-6, 50e-6))
 >>> grid = GridSpec(height=512, width=512, pixel_pitch=6.4e-6)
 >>> rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
 >>> 
 >>> # Amplitude-only object
 >>> amp_field = generator.generate_complex(grid, rng, mode="amplitude")
 >>> 
 >>> # Phase-only object
 >>> phase_field = generator.generate_complex(
 ... grid, rng, phase_shift=np.pi/2, mode="phase"
 ... )
 """

Available generators:

CircleGenerator
RectangleGenerator
RingGenerator
CircleCheckerGenerator
RectangleCheckerGenerator
EllipseCheckerGenerator

Usage:

from hologen.shapes import CircleGenerator, RectangleGenerator
from hologen.types import GridSpec
import numpy as np
grid = GridSpec(height=512, width=512, pixel_pitch=6.4e-6)
rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
# Circle with amplitude modulation
circle_gen = CircleGenerator(radius_range=(20e-6, 50e-6))
amp_circle = circle_gen.generate_complex(grid, rng, mode="amplitude")
# Rectangle with phase modulation
rect_gen = RectangleGenerator(width_range=(30e-6, 60e-6), height_range=(30e-6, 60e-6))
phase_rect = rect_gen.generate_complex(grid, rng, phase_shift=np.pi/2, mode="phase")

Converters (hologen.converters)

ObjectDomainProducer.generate_complex()

Generate complex object sample.

def generate_complex(self, rng: Generator) -> ComplexObjectSample:
 """Generate a complex object-domain sample.

 Args:
 rng: NumPy random number generator

 Returns:
 ComplexObjectSample with generated field

 Examples:
 >>> producer = ObjectDomainProducer(
 ... generator=CircleGenerator(radius_range=(20e-6, 50e-6)),
 ... phase_shift=np.pi/2,
 ... mode="phase"
 ... )
 >>> sample = producer.generate_complex(rng)
 """

ObjectToHologramConverter (Updated)

Converter now supports complex fields and OutputConfig.

@dataclass(slots=True)
class ObjectToHologramConverter:
 """Convert object-domain samples to holograms with complex field support.

 Attributes:
 strategy_mapping: Mapping from holography method to strategy
 noise_model: Optional noise model to apply
 output_config: Configuration for output representations
 """
 strategy_mapping: dict[HolographyMethod, HolographyStrategy]
 noise_model: NoiseModel | None = None
 output_config: OutputConfig = field(default_factory=OutputConfig)

Updated methods:

def create_hologram(
 self,
 sample: ComplexObjectSample,
 config: HolographyConfig,
 rng: Generator
) -> ArrayComplex:
 """Generate complex hologram from complex object.

 Args:
 sample: Complex object sample
 config: Holography configuration
 rng: Random number generator

 Returns:
 Complex hologram field
 """
def reconstruct(
 self,
 hologram: ArrayComplex,
 config: HolographyConfig
) -> ArrayComplex:
 """Reconstruct complex object field from complex hologram.

 Args:
 hologram: Complex hologram field
 config: Holography configuration

 Returns:
 Complex reconstruction field
 """

I/O Utilities (hologen.utils.io)

ComplexFieldWriter

Writer for complex field data.

@dataclass(slots=True)
class ComplexFieldWriter:
 """Write complex field data to NumPy archives and PNG previews.

 Attributes:
 save_preview: Whether to save PNG preview images
 phase_colormap: Matplotlib colormap name for phase visualization

 Examples:
 >>> writer = ComplexFieldWriter(save_preview=True, phase_colormap="twilight")
 >>> writer.save(samples, output_dir=Path("dataset"))
 """
 save_preview: bool = True
 phase_colormap: str = "twilight"
 
 def save(
 self,
 samples: Iterable[ComplexHologramSample],
 output_dir: Path
 ) -> None:
 """Write complex hologram samples to disk.

 Args:
 samples: Iterable of complex hologram samples
 output_dir: Output directory path

 Creates directory structure:
 output_dir/
 ├── npz/
 │ ├── *_object.npz
 │ ├── *_hologram.npz
 │ └── *_reconstruction.npz
 └── preview/
 ├── object/
 ├── hologram/
 └── reconstruction/
 """

Usage:

from hologen.utils.io import ComplexFieldWriter
from pathlib import Path
# Create writer
writer = ComplexFieldWriter(
 save_preview=True,
 phase_colormap="twilight" # or "hsv", "twilight_shifted", etc.
)
# Write samples
writer.save(samples, output_dir=Path("my_dataset"))

load_complex_sample()

Load sample with automatic format detection.

def load_complex_sample(path: Path) -> ComplexObjectSample | ObjectSample:
 """Load sample with automatic format detection.

 Args:
 path: Path to .npz file

 Returns:
 ComplexObjectSample if file contains complex data,
 ObjectSample if file contains legacy intensity data

 Raises:
 ValueError: If file format is unrecognized

 Examples:
 >>> sample = load_complex_sample(Path("dataset/npz/sample_00000_circle_object.npz"))
 >>> if isinstance(sample, ComplexObjectSample):
 ... print(f"Complex field: {sample.field.shape}")
 ... else:
 ... print(f"Intensity field: {sample.pixels.shape}")
 """

Usage:

from hologen.utils.io import load_complex_sample
from hologen.types import ComplexObjectSample, ObjectSample
from pathlib import Path
# Load sample (auto-detects format)
sample = load_complex_sample(Path("dataset/npz/sample_00000_circle_object.npz"))
# Handle both formats
if isinstance(sample, ComplexObjectSample):
 print(f"Complex sample: {sample.representation}")
 field = sample.field
else:
 print("Legacy intensity sample")
 intensity = sample.pixels

Protocol Updates

HolographyStrategy (Updated)

Protocol for holography strategies now uses complex fields.

class HolographyStrategy(Protocol):
 """Protocol for holography strategy implementations."""
 
 def create_hologram(
 self,
 object_field: ArrayComplex, # Updated: was ArrayFloat
 config: HolographyConfig
 ) -> ArrayComplex: # Updated: was ArrayFloat
 """Create complex hologram field from complex object field."""
 ...
 
 def reconstruct(
 self,
 hologram: ArrayComplex, # Updated: was ArrayFloat
 config: HolographyConfig
 ) -> ArrayComplex: # Updated: was ArrayFloat
 """Reconstruct complex object field from complex hologram."""
 ...

Migration Guide

From Intensity-Only to Complex Fields

Old code (intensity-only):

from hologen.converters import generate_dataset
from hologen.utils.io import NumpyDatasetWriter
# Generate intensity-only dataset
generate_dataset(
 count=100,
 config=config,
 rng=rng,
 writer=NumpyDatasetWriter(save_preview=True),
 output_dir=Path("dataset")
)

New code (complex fields):

from hologen.converters import generate_dataset
from hologen.utils.io import ComplexFieldWriter
from hologen.types import OutputConfig, FieldRepresentation
# Configure complex output
output_config = OutputConfig(
 object_representation=FieldRepresentation.PHASE,
 hologram_representation=FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX,
 reconstruction_representation=FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX
)
# Generate complex dataset
generate_dataset(
 count=100,
 config=config,
 rng=rng,
 writer=ComplexFieldWriter(save_preview=True),
 output_dir=Path("dataset"),
 output_config=output_config
)

Backward Compatibility

All existing code continues to work without modification:

# This still works (intensity-only, default behavior)
generate_dataset(
 count=100,
 config=config,
 rng=rng,
 writer=NumpyDatasetWriter(save_preview=True),
 output_dir=Path("dataset")
)

Type Aliases

from numpy.typing import NDArray
import numpy as np
# Array type aliases
ArrayFloat = NDArray[np.float64] # Real-valued arrays
ArrayComplex = NDArray[np.complex128] # Complex-valued arrays

Complete API Example

from hologen import *
from hologen.converters import ObjectDomainProducer, ObjectToHologramConverter
from hologen.holography.inline import InlineHolographyStrategy
from hologen.shapes import CircleGenerator
from hologen.types import (
 GridSpec, OpticalConfig, HolographyConfig, HolographyMethod,
 FieldRepresentation, OutputConfig, ComplexObjectSample
)
from hologen.utils.fields import complex_to_representation, validate_phase_range
from hologen.utils.io import ComplexFieldWriter
from pathlib import Path
import numpy as np
# 1. Configure system
grid = GridSpec(height=512, width=512, pixel_pitch=6.4e-6)
optics = OpticalConfig(wavelength=532e-9, propagation_distance=0.05)
config = HolographyConfig(grid=grid, optics=optics, method=HolographyMethod.INLINE)
# 2. Configure output
output_config = OutputConfig(
 object_representation=FieldRepresentation.PHASE,
 hologram_representation=FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX,
 reconstruction_representation=FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX
)
# 3. Create components
generator = CircleGenerator(radius_range=(20e-6, 50e-6))
producer = ObjectDomainProducer(generator=generator, phase_shift=np.pi/2, mode="phase")
strategy = InlineHolographyStrategy()
converter = ObjectToHologramConverter(
 strategy_mapping={HolographyMethod.INLINE: strategy},
 output_config=output_config
)
# 4. Generate sample
rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
object_sample = producer.generate_complex(rng)
# 5. Validate
phase = np.angle(object_sample.field)
validate_phase_range(phase)
# 6. Create hologram
hologram = converter.create_hologram(object_sample, config, rng)
# 7. Reconstruct
reconstruction = converter.reconstruct(hologram, config)
# 8. Convert representations
hologram_intensity = complex_to_representation(hologram, FieldRepresentation.INTENSITY)
hologram_amplitude = complex_to_representation(hologram, FieldRepresentation.AMPLITUDE)
hologram_phase = complex_to_representation(hologram, FieldRepresentation.PHASE)
# 9. Save
writer = ComplexFieldWriter(save_preview=True, phase_colormap="twilight")
samples = [ComplexHologramSample(
 object_sample=object_sample,
 hologram_field=hologram,
 hologram_representation=FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX,
 reconstruction_field=reconstruction,
 reconstruction_representation=FieldRepresentation.COMPLEX
)]
writer.save(samples, output_dir=Path("output"))

Visual Examples

This section provides visual examples demonstrating the differences between field representations and object types.

Generating Visual Examples

To generate visual comparison images, install matplotlib and run the provided script:

pip install matplotlib
python scripts/generate_visual_examples.py

This will create comparison images in docs/examples/complex_fields/ showing:

Amplitude-only vs phase-only objects
Intensity vs complex field representations
Complete hologram generation and reconstruction pipeline

Field Representation Comparison

For a phase-only circular object, the four representations show:

Intensity (|E|2):

Uniform brightness (no contrast!)
Phase information is lost
Cannot distinguish object from background
This is what a camera would record

Amplitude (|E|):

Uniform amplitude (value = 1.0 everywhere)
Still no contrast for phase-only objects
Square root of intensity

Phase (arg(E)):

Clear circular pattern visible
Phase shift of π/2 inside circle, 0 outside
Values range from -π to π radians
Contains the actual object information

Complex (Real + Imaginary):

Complete field information preserved
Can be visualized as amplitude with phase color overlay
Enables full wave optics processing
Required for physics-aware ML models

Object Type Comparison

Amplitude-Only Object (Absorbing Circle)

An amplitude-only object modulates light intensity through absorption:

Intensity: Dark circle on bright background (high contrast)
Amplitude: Smooth transition from 0 (inside) to 1 (outside)
Phase: Uniform zero everywhere (no phase modulation)
Complex: Real-valued field (imaginary part is zero)

Physical example: Stained biological sample, printed pattern, metal particle

Phase-Only Object (Transparent Circle)

A phase-only object modulates light phase without absorption:

Intensity: Uniform brightness (NO contrast - invisible!)
Amplitude: Uniform value of 1.0 everywhere
Phase: Step function (0 outside, π/2 inside circle)
Complex: Pure phase modulation (|E| = 1)

Physical example: Unstained biological cell, phase mask, transparent polymer

Why Intensity-Only Fails for Phase Objects

For phase-only objects, intensity-based imaging provides no contrast:

Phase-only object: E = exp(iφ)
Intensity: I = |E|2 = |exp(iφ)|2 = 1 (uniform!)

The object is invisible in intensity! However, after propagation through holography:

×ばつ H] Intensity: I' = |E'|2 (now shows interference pattern)">

After propagation: E' = F−1[F[E] ×ばつ H]
Intensity: I' = |E'|2 (now shows interference pattern)

The hologram intensity shows interference fringes that encode the phase information.

Complete Pipeline Example

A typical hologram generation pipeline for a phase-only object:

Object Field: Phase-only circle (uniform amplitude, varying phase)
- Amplitude: 1.0 everywhere
- Phase: 0 outside, π/2 inside
Hologram Field: After propagation to sensor plane
- Amplitude: Interference pattern (fringes visible)
- Phase: Complex phase distribution
- Intensity: Shows characteristic hologram pattern
Reconstruction Field: After back-propagation
- Amplitude: Recovered (close to 1.0)
- Phase: Recovered (close to original 0 and π/2)
- Quality depends on propagation distance and noise

Intensity vs Complex Comparison

Intensity-Only Workflow (Legacy):

Phase Object → [Propagate] → Hologram Intensity → [ML Model] → Reconstruction
 ↑
 Phase information lost here!

Complex Field Workflow (New):

Phase Object → [Propagate] → Complex Hologram → [ML Model] → Complex Reconstruction
 ↑
 Full field information preserved!

Key Observations

Phase-only objects are invisible in intensity: You need holographic propagation to create contrast
Complex fields preserve all information: Both amplitude and phase are available for processing
Hologram patterns differ by object type:
- Amplitude objects: Fresnel diffraction pattern
- Phase objects: Interference fringes
- Mixed objects: Combination of both
Reconstruction quality: Complex field reconstruction can recover both amplitude and phase, while intensity-only reconstruction can only recover intensity

Practical Implications for ML

For intensity-only models:

Can learn hologram → intensity reconstruction
Cannot recover phase information
Limited to amplitude/intensity objects
Simpler data format (1 channel)

For complex field models:

Can learn hologram → full field reconstruction
Can recover both amplitude and phase
Works with all object types
Richer data format (2 channels: real + imaginary)
Enables physics-informed architectures

Example Visualizations

The generate_visual_examples.py script creates the following comparison images:

amplitude_only_object.png: Shows all four representations of an absorbing circle
phase_only_object.png: Shows all four representations of a transparent circle
example_object.png: Phase-only object field
example_hologram.png: Hologram field after propagation
example_reconstruction.png: Reconstructed field after back-propagation
intensity_vs_complex_comparison.png: Side-by-side comparison showing why complex fields matter

These images demonstrate:

Why phase-only objects need complex field support
How information is preserved through the pipeline
The difference between intensity-only and complex representations
What ML models can learn from each representation type

Colormap Reference

For phase visualization, common colormaps include:

twilight: Cyclic colormap, good for phase (default)
hsv: Classic phase colormap (hue = phase)
twilight_shifted: Shifted version of twilight
cyclic: Generic cyclic colormap

Example of setting colormap:

writer = ComplexFieldWriter(phase_colormap="twilight")

Or for custom visualization:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
phase = np.angle(field)
plt.imshow(phase, cmap='twilight', vmin=-np.pi, vmax=np.pi)
plt.colorbar(label='Phase (radians)')