.. module:: re :synopsis: Regular expression operations.
.. moduleauthor:: Fredrik Lundh <fredrik@pythonware.com>
.. sectionauthor:: Andrew M. Kuchling <amk@amk.ca>
Source code: :source:`Lib/re.py`
This module provides regular expression matching operations similar to those found in Perl.
Both patterns and strings to be searched can be Unicode strings (:class:`str`) as well as 8-bit strings (:class:`bytes`). However, Unicode strings and 8-bit strings cannot be mixed: that is, you cannot match a Unicode string with a byte pattern or vice-versa; similarly, when asking for a substitution, the replacement string must be of the same type as both the pattern and the search string.
Regular expressions use the backslash character ('\') to indicate
special forms or to allow special characters to be used without invoking
their special meaning. This collides with Python's usage of the same
character for the same purpose in string literals; for example, to match
a literal backslash, one might have to write '\\\\' as the pattern
string, because the regular expression must be \\, and each
backslash must be expressed as \\ inside a regular Python string
literal. Also, please note that any invalid escape sequences in Python's
usage of the backslash in string literals now generate a :exc:`DeprecationWarning`
and in the future this will become a :exc:`SyntaxError`. This behaviour
will happen even if it is a valid escape sequence for a regular expression.
The solution is to use Python's raw string notation for regular expression
patterns; backslashes are not handled in any special way in a string literal
prefixed with 'r'. So r"\n" is a two-character string containing
'\' and 'n', while "\n" is a one-character string containing a
newline. Usually patterns will be expressed in Python code using this raw
string notation.
It is important to note that most regular expression operations are available as module-level functions and methods on :ref:`compiled regular expressions <re-objects>`. The functions are shortcuts that don't require you to compile a regex object first, but miss some fine-tuning parameters.
.. seealso:: The third-party `regex <https://pypi.org/project/regex/>`_ module, which has an API compatible with the standard library :mod:`re` module, but offers additional functionality and a more thorough Unicode support.
A regular expression (or RE) specifies a set of strings that matches it; the functions in this module let you check if a particular string matches a given regular expression (or if a given regular expression matches a particular string, which comes down to the same thing).
Regular expressions can be concatenated to form new regular expressions; if A and B are both regular expressions, then AB is also a regular expression. In general, if a string p matches A and another string q matches B, the string pq will match AB. This holds unless A or B contain low precedence operations; boundary conditions between A and B; or have numbered group references. Thus, complex expressions can easily be constructed from simpler primitive expressions like the ones described here. For details of the theory and implementation of regular expressions, consult the Friedl book [Frie09], or almost any textbook about compiler construction.
A brief explanation of the format of regular expressions follows. For further information and a gentler presentation, consult the :ref:`regex-howto`.
Regular expressions can contain both special and ordinary characters. Most
ordinary characters, like 'A', 'a', or '0', are the simplest regular
expressions; they simply match themselves. You can concatenate ordinary
characters, so last matches the string 'last'. (In the rest of this
section, we'll write RE's in this special style, usually without quotes, and
strings to be matched 'in single quotes'.)
Some characters, like '|' or '(', are special. Special
characters either stand for classes of ordinary characters, or affect
how the regular expressions around them are interpreted.
Repetition qualifiers (*, +, ?, {m,n}, etc) cannot be
directly nested. This avoids ambiguity with the non-greedy modifier suffix
?, and with other modifiers in other implementations. To apply a second
repetition to an inner repetition, parentheses may be used. For example,
the expression (?:a{6})* matches any multiple of six 'a' characters.
The special characters are:
.. index:: single: . (dot); in regular expressions
... index:: single: ^ (caret); in regular expressions
^.. index:: single: $ (dollar); in regular expressions
$foo
matches both 'foo' and 'foobar', while the regular expression foo$ matches
only 'foo'. More interestingly, searching for foo.$ in 'foo1\nfoo2\n'
matches 'foo2' normally, but 'foo1' in :const:`MULTILINE` mode; searching for
a single $ in 'foo\n' will find two (empty) matches: one just before
the newline, and one at the end of the string... index:: single: * (asterisk); in regular expressions
*ab* will match 'a', 'ab', or 'a' followed
by any number of 'b's... index:: single: + (plus); in regular expressions
+ab+ will match 'a' followed by any non-zero number of 'b's; it will not
match just 'a'... index:: single: ? (question mark); in regular expressions
?ab? will match either 'a' or 'ab'... index:: single: *?; in regular expressions single: +?; in regular expressions single: ??; in regular expressions
*?, +?, ??
'*', '+', and '?' qualifiers are all :dfn:`greedy`; they match
as much text as possible. Sometimes this behaviour isn't desired; if the RE
<.*> is matched against '<a> b <c>', it will match the entire
string, and not just '<a>'. Adding ? after the qualifier makes it
perform the match in :dfn:`non-greedy` or :dfn:`minimal` fashion; as few
characters as possible will be matched. Using the RE <.*?> will match
only '<a>'.
.. index::
single: {} (curly brackets); in regular expressions
{m}a{6} will match
exactly six 'a' characters, but not five.{m,n}a{3,5} will match from 3 to 5 'a' characters. Omitting m specifies a
lower bound of zero, and omitting n specifies an infinite upper bound. As an
example, a{4,}b will match 'aaaab' or a thousand 'a' characters
followed by a 'b', but not 'aaab'. The comma may not be omitted or the
modifier would be confused with the previously described form.{m,n}?'aaaaaa', a{3,5} will match 5 'a' characters,
while a{3,5}? will only match 3 characters... index:: single: \ (backslash); in regular expressions
\Either escapes special characters (permitting you to match characters like
'*', '?', and so forth), or signals a special sequence; special
sequences are discussed below.
If you're not using a raw string to express the pattern, remember that Python also uses the backslash as an escape sequence in string literals; if the escape sequence isn't recognized by Python's parser, the backslash and subsequent character are included in the resulting string. However, if Python would recognize the resulting sequence, the backslash should be repeated twice. This is complicated and hard to understand, so it's highly recommended that you use raw strings for all but the simplest expressions.
.. index:: single: [] (square brackets); in regular expressions
[]Used to indicate a set of characters. In a set:
[amk] will match 'a',
'm', or 'k'... index:: single: - (minus); in regular expressions
'-', for example [a-z] will match any lowercase ASCII letter,
[0-5][0-9] will match all the two-digits numbers from 00 to 59, and
[0-9A-Fa-f] will match any hexadecimal digit. If - is escaped (e.g.
[a\-z]) or if it's placed as the first or last character
(e.g. [-a] or [a-]), it will match a literal '-'.[(+*)] will match any of the literal characters '(', '+',
'*', or ')'... index:: single: \ (backslash); in regular expressions
\w or \S (defined below) are also accepted
inside a set, although the characters they match depends on whether
:const:`ASCII` or :const:`LOCALE` mode is in force... index:: single: ^ (caret); in regular expressions
'^', all the characters
that are not in the set will be matched. For example, [^5] will match
any character except '5', and [^^] will match any character except
'^'. ^ has no special meaning if it's not the first character in
the set.']' inside a set, precede it with a backslash, or
place it at the beginning of the set. For example, both [()[\]{}] and
[]()[{}] will both match a parenthesis.'[' or containing literal
character sequences '--', '&&', '~~', and '||'. To
avoid a warning escape them with a backslash... versionchanged:: 3.7 :exc:`FutureWarning` is raised if a character set contains constructs that will change semantically in the future.
.. index:: single: | (vertical bar); in regular expressions
|A|B, where A and B can be arbitrary REs, creates a regular expression that
will match either A or B. An arbitrary number of REs can be separated by the
'|' in this way. This can be used inside groups (see below) as well. As
the target string is scanned, REs separated by '|' are tried from left to
right. When one pattern completely matches, that branch is accepted. This means
that once A matches, B will not be tested further, even if it would
produce a longer overall match. In other words, the '|' operator is never
greedy. To match a literal '|', use \|, or enclose it inside a
character class, as in [|]... index:: single: () (parentheses); in regular expressions
(...)\number
special sequence, described below. To match the literals '(' or ')',
use \( or \), or enclose them inside a character class: [(], [)]... index:: single: (?; in regular expressions
(?...)'?' following a '(' is not meaningful
otherwise). The first character after the '?' determines what the meaning
and further syntax of the construct is. Extensions usually do not create a new
group; (?P<name>...) is the only exception to this rule. Following are the
currently supported extensions.(?aiLmsux)'a', 'i', 'L', 'm',
's', 'u', 'x'.) The group matches the empty string; the
letters set the corresponding flags: :const:`re.A` (ASCII-only matching),
:const:`re.I` (ignore case), :const:`re.L` (locale dependent),
:const:`re.M` (multi-line), :const:`re.S` (dot matches all),
:const:`re.U` (Unicode matching), and :const:`re.X` (verbose),
for the entire regular expression.
(The flags are described in :ref:`contents-of-module-re`.)
This is useful if you wish to include the flags as part of the
regular expression, instead of passing a flag argument to the
:func:`re.compile` function. Flags should be used first in the
expression string... index:: single: (?:; in regular expressions
(?:...)(?aiLmsux-imsx:...)(Zero or more letters from the set 'a', 'i', 'L', 'm',
's', 'u', 'x', optionally followed by '-' followed by
one or more letters from the 'i', 'm', 's', 'x'.)
The letters set or remove the corresponding flags:
:const:`re.A` (ASCII-only matching), :const:`re.I` (ignore case),
:const:`re.L` (locale dependent), :const:`re.M` (multi-line),
:const:`re.S` (dot matches all), :const:`re.U` (Unicode matching),
and :const:`re.X` (verbose), for the part of the expression.
(The flags are described in :ref:`contents-of-module-re`.)
The letters 'a', 'L' and 'u' are mutually exclusive when used
as inline flags, so they can't be combined or follow '-'. Instead,
when one of them appears in an inline group, it overrides the matching mode
in the enclosing group. In Unicode patterns (?a:...) switches to
ASCII-only matching, and (?u:...) switches to Unicode matching
(default). In byte pattern (?L:...) switches to locale depending
matching, and (?a:...) switches to ASCII-only matching (default).
This override is only in effect for the narrow inline group, and the
original matching mode is restored outside of the group.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. versionchanged:: 3.7 The letters ``'a'``, ``'L'`` and ``'u'`` also can be used in a group.
.. index:: single: (?P<; in regular expressions
(?P<name>...)Similar to regular parentheses, but the substring matched by the group is accessible via the symbolic group name name. Group names must be valid Python identifiers, and each group name must be defined only once within a regular expression. A symbolic group is also a numbered group, just as if the group were not named.
Named groups can be referenced in three contexts. If the pattern is
(?P<quote>['"]).*?(?P=quote) (i.e. matching a string quoted with either
single or double quotes):
| Context of reference to group "quote" | Ways to reference it |
|---|---|
| in the same pattern itself |
|
| when processing match object m |
|
in a string passed to the repl
argument of re.sub()
|
|
.. index:: single: (?P=; in regular expressions
(?P=name).. index:: single: (?#; in regular expressions
(?#...).. index:: single: (?=; in regular expressions
(?=...)... matches next, but doesn't consume any of the string. This is
called a :dfn:`lookahead assertion`. For example, Isaac (?=Asimov) will match
'Isaac ' only if it's followed by 'Asimov'... index:: single: (?!; in regular expressions
(?!...)... doesn't match next. This is a :dfn:`negative lookahead assertion`.
For example, Isaac (?!Asimov) will match 'Isaac ' only if it's not
followed by 'Asimov'... index:: single: (?<=; in regular expressions
(?<=...)Matches if the current position in the string is preceded by a match for ...
that ends at the current position. This is called a :dfn:`positive lookbehind
assertion`. (?<=abc)def will find a match in 'abcdef', since the
lookbehind will back up 3 characters and check if the contained pattern matches.
The contained pattern must only match strings of some fixed length, meaning that
abc or a|b are allowed, but a* and a{3,4} are not. Note that
patterns which start with positive lookbehind assertions will not match at the
beginning of the string being searched; you will most likely want to use the
:func:`search` function rather than the :func:`match` function:
>>> import re
>>> m = re.search('(?<=abc)def', 'abcdef')
>>> m.group(0)
'def'
This example looks for a word following a hyphen:
>>> m = re.search(r'(?<=-)\w+', 'spam-egg') >>> m.group(0) 'egg'
.. versionchanged:: 3.5 Added support for group references of fixed length.
.. index:: single: (?<!; in regular expressions
(?<!...).... This is called a :dfn:`negative lookbehind assertion`. Similar to
positive lookbehind assertions, the contained pattern must only match strings of
some fixed length. Patterns which start with negative lookbehind assertions may
match at the beginning of the string being searched.(?(id/name)yes-pattern|no-pattern)yes-pattern if the group with given id or
name exists, and with no-pattern if it doesn't. no-pattern is
optional and can be omitted. For example,
(<)?(\w+@\w+(?:\.\w+)+)(?(1)>|$) is a poor email matching pattern, which
will match with '<user@host.com>' as well as 'user@host.com', but
not with '<user@host.com' nor 'user@host.com>'.The special sequences consist of '\' and a character from the list below.
If the ordinary character is not an ASCII digit or an ASCII letter, then the
resulting RE will match the second character. For example, \$ matches the
character '$'.
.. index:: single: \ (backslash); in regular expressions
\number(.+) 1円 matches 'the the' or '55 55',
but not 'thethe' (note the space after the group). This special sequence
can only be used to match one of the first 99 groups. If the first digit of
number is 0, or number is 3 octal digits long, it will not be interpreted as
a group match, but as the character with octal value number. Inside the
'[' and ']' of a character class, all numeric escapes are treated as
characters... index:: single: \A; in regular expressions
\A.. index:: single: \b; in regular expressions
\bMatches the empty string, but only at the beginning or end of a word.
A word is defined as a sequence of word characters. Note that formally,
\b is defined as the boundary between a \w and a \W character
(or vice versa), or between \w and the beginning/end of the string.
This means that r'\bfoo\b' matches 'foo', 'foo.', '(foo)',
'bar foo baz' but not 'foobar' or 'foo3'.
By default Unicode alphanumerics are the ones used in Unicode patterns, but
this can be changed by using the :const:`ASCII` flag. Word boundaries are
determined by the current locale if the :const:`LOCALE` flag is used.
Inside a character range, \b represents the backspace character, for
compatibility with Python's string literals.
.. index:: single: \B; in regular expressions
\Br'py\B' matches 'python', 'py3',
'py2', but not 'py', 'py.', or 'py!'.
\B is just the opposite of \b, so word characters in Unicode
patterns are Unicode alphanumerics or the underscore, although this can
be changed by using the :const:`ASCII` flag. Word boundaries are
determined by the current locale if the :const:`LOCALE` flag is used... index:: single: \d; in regular expressions
\d[0-9], and
also many other digit characters. If the :const:`ASCII` flag is
used only [0-9] is matched.[0-9]... index:: single: \D; in regular expressions
\D\d. If the :const:`ASCII` flag is used this
becomes the equivalent of [^0-9]... index:: single: \s; in regular expressions
\s[ \t\n\r\f\v], and also many other characters, for example the
non-breaking spaces mandated by typography rules in many
languages). If the :const:`ASCII` flag is used, only
[ \t\n\r\f\v] is matched.[ \t\n\r\f\v]... index:: single: \S; in regular expressions
\S\s. If the :const:`ASCII` flag is used this
becomes the equivalent of [^ \t\n\r\f\v]... index:: single: \w; in regular expressions
\w[a-zA-Z0-9_] is matched.[a-zA-Z0-9_]. If the :const:`LOCALE` flag is
used, matches characters considered alphanumeric in the current locale
and the underscore... index:: single: \W; in regular expressions
\W\w. If the :const:`ASCII` flag is used this
becomes the equivalent of [^a-zA-Z0-9_]. If the :const:`LOCALE` flag is
used, matches characters which are neither alphanumeric in the current locale
nor the underscore... index:: single: \Z; in regular expressions
\Z.. index:: single: \a; in regular expressions single: \b; in regular expressions single: \f; in regular expressions single: \n; in regular expressions single: \N; in regular expressions single: \r; in regular expressions single: \t; in regular expressions single: \u; in regular expressions single: \U; in regular expressions single: \v; in regular expressions single: \x; in regular expressions single: \\; in regular expressions
Most of the standard escapes supported by Python string literals are also accepted by the regular expression parser:
\a \b \f \n \N \r \t \u \U \v \x \\
(Note that \b is used to represent word boundaries, and means "backspace"
only inside character classes.)
'\u', '\U', and '\N' escape sequences are only recognized in Unicode
patterns. In bytes patterns they are errors. Unknown escapes of ASCII
letters are reserved for future use and treated as errors.
Octal escapes are included in a limited form. If the first digit is a 0, or if there are three octal digits, it is considered an octal escape. Otherwise, it is a group reference. As for string literals, octal escapes are always at most three digits in length.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 The ``'\u'`` and ``'\U'`` escape sequences have been added.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6 Unknown escapes consisting of ``'\'`` and an ASCII letter now are errors.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
The ``'\N{name}'`` escape sequence has been added. As in string literals,
it expands to the named Unicode character (e.g. ``'\N{EM DASH}'``).
The module defines several functions, constants, and an exception. Some of the functions are simplified versions of the full featured methods for compiled regular expressions. Most non-trivial applications always use the compiled form.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6 Flag constants are now instances of :class:`RegexFlag`, which is a subclass of :class:`enum.IntFlag`.
.. function:: compile(pattern, flags=0) Compile a regular expression pattern into a :ref:`regular expression object <re-objects>`, which can be used for matching using its :func:`~Pattern.match`, :func:`~Pattern.search` and other methods, described below. The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value. Values can be any of the following variables, combined using bitwise OR (the ``|`` operator). The sequence :: prog = re.compile(pattern) result = prog.match(string) is equivalent to :: result = re.match(pattern, string) but using :func:`re.compile` and saving the resulting regular expression object for reuse is more efficient when the expression will be used several times in a single program. .. note:: The compiled versions of the most recent patterns passed to :func:`re.compile` and the module-level matching functions are cached, so programs that use only a few regular expressions at a time needn't worry about compiling regular expressions.
.. data:: A ASCII Make ``\w``, ``\W``, ``\b``, ``\B``, ``\d``, ``\D``, ``\s`` and ``\S`` perform ASCII-only matching instead of full Unicode matching. This is only meaningful for Unicode patterns, and is ignored for byte patterns. Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?a)``. Note that for backward compatibility, the :const:`re.U` flag still exists (as well as its synonym :const:`re.UNICODE` and its embedded counterpart ``(?u)``), but these are redundant in Python 3 since matches are Unicode by default for strings (and Unicode matching isn't allowed for bytes).
.. data:: DEBUG Display debug information about compiled expression. No corresponding inline flag.
.. data:: I IGNORECASE Perform case-insensitive matching; expressions like ``[A-Z]`` will also match lowercase letters. Full Unicode matching (such as ``Ü`` matching ``ü``) also works unless the :const:`re.ASCII` flag is used to disable non-ASCII matches. The current locale does not change the effect of this flag unless the :const:`re.LOCALE` flag is also used. Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?i)``. Note that when the Unicode patterns ``[a-z]`` or ``[A-Z]`` are used in combination with the :const:`IGNORECASE` flag, they will match the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters: 'İ' (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), 'ı' (U+0131, Latin small letter dotless i), 's' (U+017F, Latin small letter long s) and 'K' (U+212A, Kelvin sign). If the :const:`ASCII` flag is used, only letters 'a' to 'z' and 'A' to 'Z' are matched.
.. data:: L LOCALE Make ``\w``, ``\W``, ``\b``, ``\B`` and case-insensitive matching dependent on the current locale. This flag can be used only with bytes patterns. The use of this flag is discouraged as the locale mechanism is very unreliable, it only handles one "culture" at a time, and it only works with 8-bit locales. Unicode matching is already enabled by default in Python 3 for Unicode (str) patterns, and it is able to handle different locales/languages. Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?L)``. .. versionchanged:: 3.6 :const:`re.LOCALE` can be used only with bytes patterns and is not compatible with :const:`re.ASCII`. .. versionchanged:: 3.7 Compiled regular expression objects with the :const:`re.LOCALE` flag no longer depend on the locale at compile time. Only the locale at matching time affects the result of matching.
.. data:: M MULTILINE When specified, the pattern character ``'^'`` matches at the beginning of the string and at the beginning of each line (immediately following each newline); and the pattern character ``'$'`` matches at the end of the string and at the end of each line (immediately preceding each newline). By default, ``'^'`` matches only at the beginning of the string, and ``'$'`` only at the end of the string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the end of the string. Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?m)``.
.. data:: S DOTALL Make the ``'.'`` special character match any character at all, including a newline; without this flag, ``'.'`` will match anything *except* a newline. Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?s)``.
.. data:: X VERBOSE .. index:: single: # (hash); in regular expressions This flag allows you to write regular expressions that look nicer and are more readable by allowing you to visually separate logical sections of the pattern and add comments. Whitespace within the pattern is ignored, except when in a character class, or when preceded by an unescaped backslash, or within tokens like ``*?``, ``(?:`` or ``(?P<...>``. When a line contains a ``#`` that is not in a character class and is not preceded by an unescaped backslash, all characters from the leftmost such ``#`` through the end of the line are ignored. This means that the two following regular expression objects that match a decimal number are functionally equal:: a = re.compile(r"""\d + # the integral part \. # the decimal point \d * # some fractional digits""", re.X) b = re.compile(r"\d+\.\d*") Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?x)``.
.. function:: search(pattern, string, flags=0) Scan through *string* looking for the first location where the regular expression *pattern* produces a match, and return a corresponding :ref:`match object <match-objects>`. Return ``None`` if no position in the string matches the pattern; note that this is different from finding a zero-length match at some point in the string.
.. function:: match(pattern, string, flags=0) If zero or more characters at the beginning of *string* match the regular expression *pattern*, return a corresponding :ref:`match object <match-objects>`. Return ``None`` if the string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from a zero-length match. Note that even in :const:`MULTILINE` mode, :func:`re.match` will only match at the beginning of the string and not at the beginning of each line. If you want to locate a match anywhere in *string*, use :func:`search` instead (see also :ref:`search-vs-match`).
.. function:: fullmatch(pattern, string, flags=0) If the whole *string* matches the regular expression *pattern*, return a corresponding :ref:`match object <match-objects>`. Return ``None`` if the string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from a zero-length match. .. versionadded:: 3.4
.. function:: split(pattern, string, maxsplit=0, flags=0)
Split *string* by the occurrences of *pattern*. If capturing parentheses are
used in *pattern*, then the text of all groups in the pattern are also returned
as part of the resulting list. If *maxsplit* is nonzero, at most *maxsplit*
splits occur, and the remainder of the string is returned as the final element
of the list. ::
>>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.')
['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
>>> re.split(r'(\W+)', 'Words, words, words.')
['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
>>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.', 1)
['Words', 'words, words.']
>>> re.split('[a-f]+', '0a3B9', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
['0', '3', '9']
If there are capturing groups in the separator and it matches at the start of
the string, the result will start with an empty string. The same holds for
the end of the string::
>>> re.split(r'(\W+)', '...words, words...')
['', '...', 'words', ', ', 'words', '...', '']
That way, separator components are always found at the same relative
indices within the result list.
Empty matches for the pattern split the string only when not adjacent
to a previous empty match.
>>> re.split(r'\b', 'Words, words, words.')
['', 'Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.']
>>> re.split(r'\W*', '...words...')
['', '', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'd', 's', '', '']
>>> re.split(r'(\W*)', '...words...')
['', '...', '', '', 'w', '', 'o', '', 'r', '', 'd', '', 's', '...', '', '', '']
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
Added the optional flags argument.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Added support of splitting on a pattern that could match an empty string.
.. function:: findall(pattern, string, flags=0) Return all non-overlapping matches of *pattern* in *string*, as a list of strings. The *string* is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in the order found. If one or more groups are present in the pattern, return a list of groups; this will be a list of tuples if the pattern has more than one group. Empty matches are included in the result. .. versionchanged:: 3.7 Non-empty matches can now start just after a previous empty match.
.. function:: finditer(pattern, string, flags=0) Return an :term:`iterator` yielding :ref:`match objects <match-objects>` over all non-overlapping matches for the RE *pattern* in *string*. The *string* is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in the order found. Empty matches are included in the result. .. versionchanged:: 3.7 Non-empty matches can now start just after a previous empty match.
.. function:: sub(pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)
Return the string obtained by replacing the leftmost non-overlapping occurrences
of *pattern* in *string* by the replacement *repl*. If the pattern isn't found,
*string* is returned unchanged. *repl* can be a string or a function; if it is
a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed. That is, ``\n`` is
converted to a single newline character, ``\r`` is converted to a carriage return, and
so forth. Unknown escapes of ASCII letters are reserved for future use and
treated as errors. Other unknown escapes such as ``\&`` are left alone.
Backreferences, such
as ``6円``, are replaced with the substring matched by group 6 in the pattern.
For example::
>>> re.sub(r'def\s+([a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z_0-9]*)\s*\(\s*\):',
... r'static PyObject*\npy_1円(void)\n{',
... 'def myfunc():')
'static PyObject*\npy_myfunc(void)\n{'
If *repl* is a function, it is called for every non-overlapping occurrence of
*pattern*. The function takes a single :ref:`match object <match-objects>`
argument, and returns the replacement string. For example::
>>> def dashrepl(matchobj):
... if matchobj.group(0) == '-': return ' '
... else: return '-'
>>> re.sub('-{1,2}', dashrepl, 'pro----gram-files')
'pro--gram files'
>>> re.sub(r'\sAND\s', ' & ', 'Baked Beans And Spam', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
'Baked Beans & Spam'
The pattern may be a string or a :ref:`pattern object <re-objects>`.
The optional argument *count* is the maximum number of pattern occurrences to be
replaced; *count* must be a non-negative integer. If omitted or zero, all
occurrences will be replaced. Empty matches for the pattern are replaced only
when not adjacent to a previous empty match, so ``sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')`` returns
``'-a-b--d-'``.
.. index:: single: \g; in regular expressions
In string-type *repl* arguments, in addition to the character escapes and
backreferences described above,
``\g<name>`` will use the substring matched by the group named ``name``, as
defined by the ``(?P<name>...)`` syntax. ``\g<number>`` uses the corresponding
group number; ``\g<2>`` is therefore equivalent to ``2円``, but isn't ambiguous
in a replacement such as ``\g<2>0``. ``20円`` would be interpreted as a
reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2 followed by the literal
character ``'0'``. The backreference ``\g<0>`` substitutes in the entire
substring matched by the RE.
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
Added the optional flags argument.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty string.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Unknown escapes in *pattern* consisting of ``'\'`` and an ASCII letter
now are errors.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Unknown escapes in *repl* consisting of ``'\'`` and an ASCII letter
now are errors.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Empty matches for the pattern are replaced when adjacent to a previous
non-empty match.
.. function:: subn(pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0) Perform the same operation as :func:`sub`, but return a tuple ``(new_string, number_of_subs_made)``. .. versionchanged:: 3.1 Added the optional flags argument. .. versionchanged:: 3.5 Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty string.
.. function:: escape(pattern)
Escape special characters in *pattern*.
This is useful if you want to match an arbitrary literal string that may
have regular expression metacharacters in it. For example::
>>> print(re.escape('http://www.python.org'))
http://www\.python\.org
>>> legal_chars = string.ascii_lowercase + string.digits + "!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:"
>>> print('[%s]+' % re.escape(legal_chars))
[abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789!\#\$%\&'\*\+\-\.\^_`\|\~:]+
>>> operators = ['+', '-', '*', '/', '**']
>>> print('|'.join(map(re.escape, sorted(operators, reverse=True))))
/|\-|\+|\*\*|\*
This function must not be used for the replacement string in :func:`sub`
and :func:`subn`, only backslashes should be escaped. For example::
>>> digits_re = r'\d+'
>>> sample = '/usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 12 warnings'
>>> print(re.sub(digits_re, digits_re.replace('\\', r'\\'), sample))
/usr/sbin/sendmail - \d+ errors, \d+ warnings
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
The ``'_'`` character is no longer escaped.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Only characters that can have special meaning in a regular expression
are escaped. As a result, ``'!'``, ``'"'``, ``'%'``, ``"'"``, ``','``,
``'/'``, ``':'``, ``';'``, ``'<'``, ``'='``, ``'>'``, ``'@'``, and
``"`"`` are no longer escaped.
.. function:: purge() Clear the regular expression cache.
.. exception:: error(msg, pattern=None, pos=None) Exception raised when a string passed to one of the functions here is not a valid regular expression (for example, it might contain unmatched parentheses) or when some other error occurs during compilation or matching. It is never an error if a string contains no match for a pattern. The error instance has the following additional attributes: .. attribute:: msg The unformatted error message. .. attribute:: pattern The regular expression pattern. .. attribute:: pos The index in *pattern* where compilation failed (may be ``None``). .. attribute:: lineno The line corresponding to *pos* (may be ``None``). .. attribute:: colno The column corresponding to *pos* (may be ``None``). .. versionchanged:: 3.5 Added additional attributes.
Compiled regular expression objects support the following methods and attributes:
.. method:: Pattern.search(string[, pos[, endpos]])
Scan through *string* looking for the first location where this regular
expression produces a match, and return a corresponding :ref:`match object
<match-objects>`. Return ``None`` if no position in the string matches the
pattern; note that this is different from finding a zero-length match at some
point in the string.
The optional second parameter *pos* gives an index in the string where the
search is to start; it defaults to ``0``. This is not completely equivalent to
slicing the string; the ``'^'`` pattern character matches at the real beginning
of the string and at positions just after a newline, but not necessarily at the
index where the search is to start.
The optional parameter *endpos* limits how far the string will be searched; it
will be as if the string is *endpos* characters long, so only the characters
from *pos* to ``endpos - 1`` will be searched for a match. If *endpos* is less
than *pos*, no match will be found; otherwise, if *rx* is a compiled regular
expression object, ``rx.search(string, 0, 50)`` is equivalent to
``rx.search(string[:50], 0)``. ::
>>> pattern = re.compile("d")
>>> pattern.search("dog") # Match at index 0
<re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='d'>
>>> pattern.search("dog", 1) # No match; search doesn't include the "d"
.. method:: Pattern.match(string[, pos[, endpos]])
If zero or more characters at the *beginning* of *string* match this regular
expression, return a corresponding :ref:`match object <match-objects>`.
Return ``None`` if the string does not match the pattern; note that this is
different from a zero-length match.
The optional *pos* and *endpos* parameters have the same meaning as for the
:meth:`~Pattern.search` method. ::
>>> pattern = re.compile("o")
>>> pattern.match("dog") # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
>>> pattern.match("dog", 1) # Match as "o" is the 2nd character of "dog".
<re.Match object; span=(1, 2), match='o'>
If you want to locate a match anywhere in *string*, use
:meth:`~Pattern.search` instead (see also :ref:`search-vs-match`).
.. method:: Pattern.fullmatch(string[, pos[, endpos]])
If the whole *string* matches this regular expression, return a corresponding
:ref:`match object <match-objects>`. Return ``None`` if the string does not
match the pattern; note that this is different from a zero-length match.
The optional *pos* and *endpos* parameters have the same meaning as for the
:meth:`~Pattern.search` method. ::
>>> pattern = re.compile("o[gh]")
>>> pattern.fullmatch("dog") # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
>>> pattern.fullmatch("ogre") # No match as not the full string matches.
>>> pattern.fullmatch("doggie", 1, 3) # Matches within given limits.
<re.Match object; span=(1, 3), match='og'>
.. versionadded:: 3.4
.. method:: Pattern.split(string, maxsplit=0) Identical to the :func:`split` function, using the compiled pattern.
.. method:: Pattern.findall(string[, pos[, endpos]]) Similar to the :func:`findall` function, using the compiled pattern, but also accepts optional *pos* and *endpos* parameters that limit the search region like for :meth:`search`.
.. method:: Pattern.finditer(string[, pos[, endpos]]) Similar to the :func:`finditer` function, using the compiled pattern, but also accepts optional *pos* and *endpos* parameters that limit the search region like for :meth:`search`.
.. method:: Pattern.sub(repl, string, count=0) Identical to the :func:`sub` function, using the compiled pattern.
.. method:: Pattern.subn(repl, string, count=0) Identical to the :func:`subn` function, using the compiled pattern.
.. attribute:: Pattern.flags The regex matching flags. This is a combination of the flags given to :func:`.compile`, any ``(?...)`` inline flags in the pattern, and implicit flags such as :data:`UNICODE` if the pattern is a Unicode string.
.. attribute:: Pattern.groups The number of capturing groups in the pattern.
.. attribute:: Pattern.groupindex A dictionary mapping any symbolic group names defined by ``(?P<id>)`` to group numbers. The dictionary is empty if no symbolic groups were used in the pattern.
.. attribute:: Pattern.pattern The pattern string from which the pattern object was compiled.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7 Added support of :func:`copy.copy` and :func:`copy.deepcopy`. Compiled regular expression objects are considered atomic.
Match objects always have a boolean value of True.
Since :meth:`~Pattern.match` and :meth:`~Pattern.search` return None
when there is no match, you can test whether there was a match with a simple
if statement:
match = re.search(pattern, string) if match: process(match)
Match objects support the following methods and attributes:
.. method:: Match.expand(template) Return the string obtained by doing backslash substitution on the template string *template*, as done by the :meth:`~Pattern.sub` method. Escapes such as ``\n`` are converted to the appropriate characters, and numeric backreferences (``1円``, ``2円``) and named backreferences (``\g<1>``, ``\g<name>``) are replaced by the contents of the corresponding group. .. versionchanged:: 3.5 Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty string.
.. method:: Match.group([group1, ...])
Returns one or more subgroups of the match. If there is a single argument, the
result is a single string; if there are multiple arguments, the result is a
tuple with one item per argument. Without arguments, *group1* defaults to zero
(the whole match is returned). If a *groupN* argument is zero, the corresponding
return value is the entire matching string; if it is in the inclusive range
[1..99], it is the string matching the corresponding parenthesized group. If a
group number is negative or larger than the number of groups defined in the
pattern, an :exc:`IndexError` exception is raised. If a group is contained in a
part of the pattern that did not match, the corresponding result is ``None``.
If a group is contained in a part of the pattern that matched multiple times,
the last match is returned. ::
>>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
>>> m.group(0) # The entire match
'Isaac Newton'
>>> m.group(1) # The first parenthesized subgroup.
'Isaac'
>>> m.group(2) # The second parenthesized subgroup.
'Newton'
>>> m.group(1, 2) # Multiple arguments give us a tuple.
('Isaac', 'Newton')
If the regular expression uses the ``(?P<name>...)`` syntax, the *groupN*
arguments may also be strings identifying groups by their group name. If a
string argument is not used as a group name in the pattern, an :exc:`IndexError`
exception is raised.
A moderately complicated example::
>>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
>>> m.group('first_name')
'Malcolm'
>>> m.group('last_name')
'Reynolds'
Named groups can also be referred to by their index::
>>> m.group(1)
'Malcolm'
>>> m.group(2)
'Reynolds'
If a group matches multiple times, only the last match is accessible::
>>> m = re.match(r"(..)+", "a1b2c3") # Matches 3 times.
>>> m.group(1) # Returns only the last match.
'c3'
.. method:: Match.__getitem__(g) This is identical to ``m.group(g)``. This allows easier access to an individual group from a match:: >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist") >>> m[0] # The entire match 'Isaac Newton' >>> m[1] # The first parenthesized subgroup. 'Isaac' >>> m[2] # The second parenthesized subgroup. 'Newton' .. versionadded:: 3.6
.. method:: Match.groups(default=None)
Return a tuple containing all the subgroups of the match, from 1 up to however
many groups are in the pattern. The *default* argument is used for groups that
did not participate in the match; it defaults to ``None``.
For example::
>>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.(\d+)", "24.1632")
>>> m.groups()
('24', '1632')
If we make the decimal place and everything after it optional, not all groups
might participate in the match. These groups will default to ``None`` unless
the *default* argument is given::
>>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.?(\d+)?", "24")
>>> m.groups() # Second group defaults to None.
('24', None)
>>> m.groups('0') # Now, the second group defaults to '0'.
('24', '0')
.. method:: Match.groupdict(default=None)
Return a dictionary containing all the *named* subgroups of the match, keyed by
the subgroup name. The *default* argument is used for groups that did not
participate in the match; it defaults to ``None``. For example::
>>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
>>> m.groupdict()
{'first_name': 'Malcolm', 'last_name': 'Reynolds'}
.. method:: Match.start([group])
Match.end([group])
Return the indices of the start and end of the substring matched by *group*;
*group* defaults to zero (meaning the whole matched substring). Return ``-1`` if
*group* exists but did not contribute to the match. For a match object *m*, and
a group *g* that did contribute to the match, the substring matched by group *g*
(equivalent to ``m.group(g)``) is ::
m.string[m.start(g):m.end(g)]
Note that ``m.start(group)`` will equal ``m.end(group)`` if *group* matched a
null string. For example, after ``m = re.search('b(c?)', 'cba')``,
``m.start(0)`` is 1, ``m.end(0)`` is 2, ``m.start(1)`` and ``m.end(1)`` are both
2, and ``m.start(2)`` raises an :exc:`IndexError` exception.
An example that will remove *remove_this* from email addresses::
>>> email = "tony@tiremove_thisger.net"
>>> m = re.search("remove_this", email)
>>> email[:m.start()] + email[m.end():]
'tony@tiger.net'
.. method:: Match.span([group]) For a match *m*, return the 2-tuple ``(m.start(group), m.end(group))``. Note that if *group* did not contribute to the match, this is ``(-1, -1)``. *group* defaults to zero, the entire match.
.. attribute:: Match.pos The value of *pos* which was passed to the :meth:`~Pattern.search` or :meth:`~Pattern.match` method of a :ref:`regex object <re-objects>`. This is the index into the string at which the RE engine started looking for a match.
.. attribute:: Match.endpos The value of *endpos* which was passed to the :meth:`~Pattern.search` or :meth:`~Pattern.match` method of a :ref:`regex object <re-objects>`. This is the index into the string beyond which the RE engine will not go.
.. attribute:: Match.lastindex The integer index of the last matched capturing group, or ``None`` if no group was matched at all. For example, the expressions ``(a)b``, ``((a)(b))``, and ``((ab))`` will have ``lastindex == 1`` if applied to the string ``'ab'``, while the expression ``(a)(b)`` will have ``lastindex == 2``, if applied to the same string.
.. attribute:: Match.lastgroup The name of the last matched capturing group, or ``None`` if the group didn't have a name, or if no group was matched at all.
.. attribute:: Match.re The :ref:`regular expression object <re-objects>` whose :meth:`~Pattern.match` or :meth:`~Pattern.search` method produced this match instance.
.. attribute:: Match.string The string passed to :meth:`~Pattern.match` or :meth:`~Pattern.search`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7 Added support of :func:`copy.copy` and :func:`copy.deepcopy`. Match objects are considered atomic.
In this example, we'll use the following helper function to display match objects a little more gracefully:
def displaymatch(match): if match is None: return None return '<Match: %r, groups=%r>' % (match.group(), match.groups())
Suppose you are writing a poker program where a player's hand is represented as a 5-character string with each character representing a card, "a" for ace, "k" for king, "q" for queen, "j" for jack, "t" for 10, and "2" through "9" representing the card with that value.
To see if a given string is a valid hand, one could do the following:
>>> valid = re.compile(r"^[a2-9tjqk]{5}$")
>>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5q")) # Valid.
"<Match: 'akt5q', groups=()>"
>>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5e")) # Invalid.
>>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt")) # Invalid.
>>> displaymatch(valid.match("727ak")) # Valid.
"<Match: '727ak', groups=()>"
That last hand, "727ak", contained a pair, or two of the same valued cards.
To match this with a regular expression, one could use backreferences as such:
>>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*1円")
>>> displaymatch(pair.match("717ak")) # Pair of 7s.
"<Match: '717', groups=('7',)>"
>>> displaymatch(pair.match("718ak")) # No pairs.
>>> displaymatch(pair.match("354aa")) # Pair of aces.
"<Match: '354aa', groups=('a',)>"
To find out what card the pair consists of, one could use the :meth:`~Match.group` method of the match object in the following manner:
>>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*1円")
>>> pair.match("717ak").group(1)
'7'
# Error because re.match() returns None, which doesn't have a group() method:
>>> pair.match("718ak").group(1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#23>", line 1, in <module>
re.match(r".*(.).*1円", "718ak").group(1)
AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'group'
>>> pair.match("354aa").group(1)
'a'
.. index:: single: scanf()
Python does not currently have an equivalent to :c:func:`scanf`. Regular expressions are generally more powerful, though also more verbose, than :c:func:`scanf` format strings. The table below offers some more-or-less equivalent mappings between :c:func:`scanf` format tokens and regular expressions.
| :c:func:`scanf` Token | Regular Expression |
|---|---|
%c |
. |
%5c |
.{5} |
%d |
[-+]?\d+ |
%e, %E, %f, %g
|
[-+]?(\d+(\.\d*)?|\.\d+)([eE][-+]?\d+)? |
%i |
[-+]?(0[xX][\dA-Fa-f]+|0[0-7]*|\d+) |
%o |
[-+]?[0-7]+ |
%s |
\S+ |
%u |
\d+ |
%x, %X
|
[-+]?(0[xX])?[\dA-Fa-f]+ |
To extract the filename and numbers from a string like
/usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 4 warnings
you would use a :c:func:`scanf` format like
%s - %d errors, %d warnings
The equivalent regular expression would be
(\S+) - (\d+) errors, (\d+) warnings
.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
Python offers two different primitive operations based on regular expressions: :func:`re.match` checks for a match only at the beginning of the string, while :func:`re.search` checks for a match anywhere in the string (this is what Perl does by default).
For example:
>>> re.match("c", "abcdef") # No match
>>> re.search("c", "abcdef") # Match
<re.Match object; span=(2, 3), match='c'>
Regular expressions beginning with '^' can be used with :func:`search` to
restrict the match at the beginning of the string:
>>> re.match("c", "abcdef") # No match
>>> re.search("^c", "abcdef") # No match
>>> re.search("^a", "abcdef") # Match
<re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='a'>
Note however that in :const:`MULTILINE` mode :func:`match` only matches at the
beginning of the string, whereas using :func:`search` with a regular expression
beginning with '^' will match at the beginning of each line.
>>> re.match('X', 'A\nB\nX', re.MULTILINE) # No match
>>> re.search('^X', 'A\nB\nX', re.MULTILINE) # Match
<re.Match object; span=(4, 5), match='X'>
:func:`split` splits a string into a list delimited by the passed pattern. The method is invaluable for converting textual data into data structures that can be easily read and modified by Python as demonstrated in the following example that creates a phonebook.
First, here is the input. Normally it may come from a file, here we are using triple-quoted string syntax
>>> text = """Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street
...
... Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue
... Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way
...
...
... Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place"""
The entries are separated by one or more newlines. Now we convert the string into a list with each nonempty line having its own entry:
>>> entries = re.split("\n+", text)
>>> entries
['Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street',
'Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue',
'Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way',
'Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place']
Finally, split each entry into a list with first name, last name, telephone
number, and address. We use the maxsplit parameter of :func:`split`
because the address has spaces, our splitting pattern, in it:
>>> [re.split(":? ", entry, 3) for entry in entries]
[['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155 Elm Street'],
['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436 Finley Avenue'],
['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662 South Dogwood Way'],
['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919 Park Place']]
The :? pattern matches the colon after the last name, so that it does not
occur in the result list. With a maxsplit of 4, we could separate the
house number from the street name:
>>> [re.split(":? ", entry, 4) for entry in entries]
[['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155', 'Elm Street'],
['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436', 'Finley Avenue'],
['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662', 'South Dogwood Way'],
['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919', 'Park Place']]
:func:`sub` replaces every occurrence of a pattern with a string or the result of a function. This example demonstrates using :func:`sub` with a function to "munge" text, or randomize the order of all the characters in each word of a sentence except for the first and last characters:
>>> def repl(m): ... inner_word = list(m.group(2)) ... random.shuffle(inner_word) ... return m.group(1) + "".join(inner_word) + m.group(3) >>> text = "Professor Abdolmalek, please report your absences promptly." >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text) 'Poefsrosr Aealmlobdk, pslaee reorpt your abnseces plmrptoy.' >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text) 'Pofsroser Aodlambelk, plasee reoprt yuor asnebces potlmrpy.'
:func:`findall` matches all occurrences of a pattern, not just the first one as :func:`search` does. For example, if a writer wanted to find all of the adverbs in some text, they might use :func:`findall` in the following manner:
>>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police." >>> re.findall(r"\w+ly", text) ['carefully', 'quickly']
If one wants more information about all matches of a pattern than the matched text, :func:`finditer` is useful as it provides :ref:`match objects <match-objects>` instead of strings. Continuing with the previous example, if a writer wanted to find all of the adverbs and their positions in some text, they would use :func:`finditer` in the following manner:
>>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
>>> for m in re.finditer(r"\w+ly", text):
... print('%02d-%02d: %s' % (m.start(), m.end(), m.group(0)))
07-16: carefully
40-47: quickly
Raw string notation (r"text") keeps regular expressions sane. Without it,
every backslash ('\') in a regular expression would have to be prefixed with
another one to escape it. For example, the two following lines of code are
functionally identical:
>>> re.match(r"\W(.)1円\W", " ff ")
<re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>
>>> re.match("\\W(.)\1円\\W", " ff ")
<re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>
When one wants to match a literal backslash, it must be escaped in the regular
expression. With raw string notation, this means r"\\". Without raw string
notation, one must use "\\\\", making the following lines of code
functionally identical:
>>> re.match(r"\\", r"\\")
<re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>
>>> re.match("\\\\", r"\\")
<re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>
A [Frie09] Friedl, Jeffrey. Mastering Regular Expressions. 3rd ed., O'Reilly Media, 2009. The third edition of the book no longer covers Python at all, but the first edition covered writing good regular expression patterns in great detail.
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