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python3.8.1

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library

inspect.rst

inspect.rst 54.72 KB

:mod:`inspect` --- Inspect live objects
=======================================

.. module:: inspect
 :synopsis: Extract information and source code from live objects.

.. moduleauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org>
.. sectionauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org>

**Source code:** :source:`Lib/inspect.py`

--------------

The :mod:`inspect` module provides several useful functions to help get
information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods, functions,
tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects. For example, it can help you
examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code of a method, extract
and format the argument list for a function, or get all the information you need
to display a detailed traceback.

There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type checking,
getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and examining the
interpreter stack.

.. _inspect-types:

Types and members
-----------------

The :func:`getmembers` function retrieves the members of an object such as a
class or module. The functions whose names begin with "is" are mainly
provided as convenient choices for the second argument to :func:`getmembers`.
They also help you determine when you can expect to find the following special
attributes:

.. this function name is too big to fit in the ascii-art table below
.. |coroutine-origin-link| replace:: :func:`sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth`

.. versionchanged:: 3.5

Add ``__qualname__`` and ``gi_yieldfrom`` attributes to generators.

The ``__name__`` attribute of generators is now set from the function
 name, instead of the code name, and it can now be modified.

.. versionchanged:: 3.7

Add ``cr_origin`` attribute to coroutines.

.. function:: getmembers(object[, predicate])

Return all the members of an object in a list of ``(name, value)``
 pairs sorted by name. If the optional *predicate* argument—which will be
 called with the ``value`` object of each member—is supplied, only members
 for which the predicate returns a true value are included.

.. note::

:func:`getmembers` will only return class attributes defined in the
 metaclass when the argument is a class and those attributes have been
 listed in the metaclass' custom :meth:`__dir__`.

.. function:: getmodulename(path)

Return the name of the module named by the file *path*, without including the
 names of enclosing packages. The file extension is checked against all of
 the entries in :func:`importlib.machinery.all_suffixes`. If it matches,
 the final path component is returned with the extension removed.
 Otherwise, ``None`` is returned.

Note that this function *only* returns a meaningful name for actual
 Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages will
 still return ``None``.

.. versionchanged:: 3.3
 The function is based directly on :mod:`importlib`.

.. function:: ismodule(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a module.

.. function:: isclass(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a class, whether built-in or created in Python
 code.

.. function:: ismethod(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a bound method written in Python.

.. function:: isfunction(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a Python function, which includes functions
 created by a :term:`lambda` expression.

.. function:: isgeneratorfunction(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a Python generator function.

.. versionchanged:: 3.8
 Functions wrapped in :func:`functools.partial` now return ``True`` if the
 wrapped function is a Python generator function.

.. function:: isgenerator(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a generator.

.. function:: iscoroutinefunction(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a :term:`coroutine function`
 (a function defined with an :keyword:`async def` syntax).

.. versionadded:: 3.5

.. versionchanged:: 3.8
 Functions wrapped in :func:`functools.partial` now return ``True`` if the
 wrapped function is a :term:`coroutine function`.

.. function:: iscoroutine(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a :term:`coroutine` created by an
 :keyword:`async def` function.

.. versionadded:: 3.5

.. function:: isawaitable(object)

Return ``True`` if the object can be used in :keyword:`await` expression.

Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from regular
 generators::

def gen():
 yield
 @types.coroutine
 def gen_coro():
 yield

assert not isawaitable(gen())
 assert isawaitable(gen_coro())

.. versionadded:: 3.5

.. function:: isasyncgenfunction(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is an :term:`asynchronous generator` function,
 for example::

>>> async def agen():
 ... yield 1
 ...
 >>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
 True

.. versionadded:: 3.6

.. versionchanged:: 3.8
 Functions wrapped in :func:`functools.partial` now return ``True`` if the
 wrapped function is a :term:`asynchronous generator` function.

.. function:: isasyncgen(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is an :term:`asynchronous generator iterator`
 created by an :term:`asynchronous generator` function.

.. versionadded:: 3.6

.. function:: istraceback(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a traceback.

.. function:: isframe(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a frame.

.. function:: iscode(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a code.

.. function:: isbuiltin(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a built-in function or a bound built-in method.

.. function:: isroutine(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a user-defined or built-in function or method.

.. function:: isabstract(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is an abstract base class.

.. function:: ismethoddescriptor(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a method descriptor, but not if
 :func:`ismethod`, :func:`isclass`, :func:`isfunction` or :func:`isbuiltin`
 are true.

This, for example, is true of ``int.__add__``. An object passing this test
 has a :meth:`~object.__get__` method but not a :meth:`~object.__set__`
 method, but beyond that the set of attributes varies. A
 :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute is usually
 sensible, and :attr:`__doc__` often is.

Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests
 return ``False`` from the :func:`ismethoddescriptor` test, simply because the
 other tests promise more -- you can, e.g., count on having the
 :attr:`__func__` attribute (etc) when an object passes :func:`ismethod`.

.. function:: isdatadescriptor(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a data descriptor.

Data descriptors have a :attr:`~object.__set__` or a :attr:`~object.__delete__` method.
 Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members. The
 latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for
 those types, which is robust across Python implementations. Typically, data
 descriptors will also have :attr:`~definition.__name__` and :attr:`__doc__` attributes
 (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is
 not guaranteed.

.. function:: isgetsetdescriptor(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a getset descriptor.

.. impl-detail::

getsets are attributes defined in extension modules via
 :c:type:`PyGetSetDef` structures. For Python implementations without such
 types, this method will always return ``False``.

.. function:: ismemberdescriptor(object)

Return ``True`` if the object is a member descriptor.

.. impl-detail::

Member descriptors are attributes defined in extension modules via
 :c:type:`PyMemberDef` structures. For Python implementations without such
 types, this method will always return ``False``.

.. _inspect-source:

Retrieving source code
----------------------

.. function:: getdoc(object)

Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with :func:`cleandoc`.
 If the documentation string for an object is not provided and the object is
 a class, a method, a property or a descriptor, retrieve the documentation
 string from the inheritance hierarchy.

.. versionchanged:: 3.5
 Documentation strings are now inherited if not overridden.

.. function:: getcomments(object)

Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately preceding the
 object's source code (for a class, function, or method), or at the top of the
 Python source file (if the object is a module). If the object's source code
 is unavailable, return ``None``. This could happen if the object has been
 defined in C or the interactive shell.

.. function:: getfile(object)

Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined.
 This will fail with a :exc:`TypeError` if the object is a built-in module,
 class, or function.

.. function:: getmodule(object)

Try to guess which module an object was defined in.

.. function:: getsourcefile(object)

Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined. This
 will fail with a :exc:`TypeError` if the object is a built-in module, class, or
 function.

.. function:: getsourcelines(object)

Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The
 argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code
 object. The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the
 object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first
 line of code was found. An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the source code cannot
 be retrieved.

.. versionchanged:: 3.3
 :exc:`OSError` is raised instead of :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of the
 former.

.. function:: getsource(object)

Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module,
 class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is
 returned as a single string. An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the source code
 cannot be retrieved.

.. versionchanged:: 3.3
 :exc:`OSError` is raised instead of :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of the
 former.

.. function:: cleandoc(doc)

Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up with blocks
 of code.

All leading whitespace is removed from the first line. Any leading whitespace
 that can be uniformly removed from the second line onwards is removed. Empty
 lines at the beginning and end are subsequently removed. Also, all tabs are
 expanded to spaces.

.. _inspect-signature-object:

Introspecting callables with the Signature object
-------------------------------------------------

.. versionadded:: 3.3

The Signature object represents the call signature of a callable object and its
return annotation. To retrieve a Signature object, use the :func:`signature`
function.

.. function:: signature(callable, \*, follow_wrapped=True)

Return a :class:`Signature` object for the given ``callable``::

>>> from inspect import signature
 >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
 ... pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)

>>> str(sig)
 '(a, *, b:int, **kwargs)'

>>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
 'b:int'

>>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
 <class 'int'>

Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and classes to
 :func:`functools.partial` objects.

Raises :exc:`ValueError` if no signature can be provided, and
 :exc:`TypeError` if that type of object is not supported.

A slash(/) in the signature of a function denotes that the parameters prior
 to it are positional-only. For more info, see
 :ref:`the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters <faq-positional-only-arguments>`.

.. versionadded:: 3.5
 ``follow_wrapped`` parameter. Pass ``False`` to get a signature of
 ``callable`` specifically (``callable.__wrapped__`` will not be used to
 unwrap decorated callables.)

.. note::

Some callables may not be introspectable in certain implementations of
 Python. For example, in CPython, some built-in functions defined in
 C provide no metadata about their arguments.

.. class:: Signature(parameters=None, \*, return_annotation=Signature.empty)

A Signature object represents the call signature of a function and its return
 annotation. For each parameter accepted by the function it stores a
 :class:`Parameter` object in its :attr:`parameters` collection.

The optional *parameters* argument is a sequence of :class:`Parameter`
 objects, which is validated to check that there are no parameters with
 duplicate names, and that the parameters are in the right order, i.e.
 positional-only first, then positional-or-keyword, and that parameters with
 defaults follow parameters without defaults.

The optional *return_annotation* argument, can be an arbitrary Python object,
 is the "return" annotation of the callable.

Signature objects are *immutable*. Use :meth:`Signature.replace` to make a
 modified copy.

.. versionchanged:: 3.5
 Signature objects are picklable and hashable.

.. attribute:: Signature.empty

A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return annotation.

.. attribute:: Signature.parameters

An ordered mapping of parameters' names to the corresponding
 :class:`Parameter` objects. Parameters appear in strict definition
 order, including keyword-only parameters.

.. versionchanged:: 3.7
 Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration
 order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice
 this order had always been preserved in Python 3.

.. attribute:: Signature.return_annotation

The "return" annotation for the callable. If the callable has no "return"
 annotation, this attribute is set to :attr:`Signature.empty`.

.. method:: Signature.bind(*args, **kwargs)

Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to parameters.
 Returns :class:`BoundArguments` if ``*args`` and ``**kwargs`` match the
 signature, or raises a :exc:`TypeError`.

.. method:: Signature.bind_partial(*args, **kwargs)

Works the same way as :meth:`Signature.bind`, but allows the omission of
 some required arguments (mimics :func:`functools.partial` behavior.)
 Returns :class:`BoundArguments`, or raises a :exc:`TypeError` if the
 passed arguments do not match the signature.

.. method:: Signature.replace(*[, parameters][, return_annotation])

Create a new Signature instance based on the instance replace was invoked
 on. It is possible to pass different ``parameters`` and/or
 ``return_annotation`` to override the corresponding properties of the base
 signature. To remove return_annotation from the copied Signature, pass in
 :attr:`Signature.empty`.

>>> def test(a, b):
 ... pass
 >>> sig = signature(test)
 >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno")
 >>> str(new_sig)
 "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'"

.. classmethod:: Signature.from_callable(obj, \*, follow_wrapped=True)

Return a :class:`Signature` (or its subclass) object for a given callable
 ``obj``. Pass ``follow_wrapped=False`` to get a signature of ``obj``
 without unwrapping its ``__wrapped__`` chain.

This method simplifies subclassing of :class:`Signature`::

class MySignature(Signature):
 pass
 sig = MySignature.from_callable(min)
 assert isinstance(sig, MySignature)

.. versionadded:: 3.5

.. class:: Parameter(name, kind, \*, default=Parameter.empty, annotation=Parameter.empty)

Parameter objects are *immutable*. Instead of modifying a Parameter object,
 you can use :meth:`Parameter.replace` to create a modified copy.

.. versionchanged:: 3.5
 Parameter objects are picklable and hashable.

.. attribute:: Parameter.empty

A special class-level marker to specify absence of default values and
 annotations.

.. attribute:: Parameter.name

The name of the parameter as a string. The name must be a valid
 Python identifier.

.. impl-detail::

CPython generates implicit parameter names of the form ``.0`` on the
 code objects used to implement comprehensions and generator
 expressions.

.. versionchanged:: 3.6
 These parameter names are exposed by this module as names like
 ``implicit0``.

.. attribute:: Parameter.default

The default value for the parameter. If the parameter has no default
 value, this attribute is set to :attr:`Parameter.empty`.

.. attribute:: Parameter.annotation

The annotation for the parameter. If the parameter has no annotation,
 this attribute is set to :attr:`Parameter.empty`.

.. attribute:: Parameter.kind

Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter. Possible values
 (accessible via :class:`Parameter`, like ``Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY``):

.. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|

Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values::

>>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
 ... pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)
 >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
 ... if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
 ... param.default is param.empty):
 ... print('Parameter:', param)
 Parameter: c

.. attribute:: Parameter.kind.description

Describes a enum value of Parameter.kind.

.. versionadded:: 3.8

Example: print all descriptions of arguments::

>>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
 ... pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)
 >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
 ... print(param.kind.description)
 positional or keyword
 positional or keyword
 keyword-only
 keyword-only

.. method:: Parameter.replace(*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])

Create a new Parameter instance based on the instance replaced was invoked
 on. To override a :class:`Parameter` attribute, pass the corresponding
 argument. To remove a default value or/and an annotation from a
 Parameter, pass :attr:`Parameter.empty`.

>>> from inspect import Parameter
 >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
 >>> str(param)
 'foo=42'

>>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param'
 'foo=42'

>>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
 "foo:'spam'"

.. versionchanged:: 3.4
 In Python 3.3 Parameter objects were allowed to have ``name`` set
 to ``None`` if their ``kind`` was set to ``POSITIONAL_ONLY``.
 This is no longer permitted.

.. class:: BoundArguments

Result of a :meth:`Signature.bind` or :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` call.
 Holds the mapping of arguments to the function's parameters.

.. attribute:: BoundArguments.arguments

An ordered, mutable mapping (:class:`collections.OrderedDict`) of
 parameters' names to arguments' values. Contains only explicitly bound
 arguments. Changes in :attr:`arguments` will reflect in :attr:`args` and
 :attr:`kwargs`.

Should be used in conjunction with :attr:`Signature.parameters` for any
 argument processing purposes.

.. note::

Arguments for which :meth:`Signature.bind` or
 :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` relied on a default value are skipped.
 However, if needed, use :meth:`BoundArguments.apply_defaults` to add
 them.

.. attribute:: BoundArguments.args

A tuple of positional arguments values. Dynamically computed from the
 :attr:`arguments` attribute.

.. attribute:: BoundArguments.kwargs

A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the
 :attr:`arguments` attribute.

.. attribute:: BoundArguments.signature

A reference to the parent :class:`Signature` object.

.. method:: BoundArguments.apply_defaults()

Set default values for missing arguments.

For variable-positional arguments (``*args``) the default is an
 empty tuple.

For variable-keyword arguments (``**kwargs``) the default is an
 empty dict.

>>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
 >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
 >>> ba.apply_defaults()
 >>> ba.arguments
 OrderedDict([('a', 'spam'), ('b', 'ham'), ('args', ())])

.. versionadded:: 3.5

The :attr:`args` and :attr:`kwargs` properties can be used to invoke
 functions::

def test(a, *, b):
 ...

sig = signature(test)
 ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
 test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)

.. seealso::

:pep:`362` - Function Signature Object.
 The detailed specification, implementation details and examples.

.. _inspect-classes-functions:

Classes and functions
---------------------

.. function:: getclasstree(classes, unique=False)

Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists. Where a
 nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the class whose entry
 immediately precedes the list. Each entry is a 2-tuple containing a class and a
 tuple of its base classes. If the *unique* argument is true, exactly one entry
 appears in the returned structure for each class in the given list. Otherwise,
 classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will appear multiple
 times.

.. function:: getargspec(func)

Get the names and default values of a Python function's parameters. A
 :term:`named tuple` ``ArgSpec(args, varargs, keywords, defaults)`` is
 returned. *args* is a list of the parameter names. *varargs* and *keywords*
 are the names of the ``*`` and ``**`` parameters or ``None``. *defaults* is a
 tuple of default argument values or ``None`` if there are no default
 arguments; if this tuple has *n* elements, they correspond to the last
 *n* elements listed in *args*.

.. deprecated:: 3.0
 Use :func:`getfullargspec` for an updated API that is usually a drop-in
 replacement, but also correctly handles function annotations and
 keyword-only parameters.

Alternatively, use :func:`signature` and
 :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>`, which provide a
 more structured introspection API for callables.

.. function:: getfullargspec(func)

Get the names and default values of a Python function's parameters. A
 :term:`named tuple` is returned:

``FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults,
 annotations)``

*args* is a list of the positional parameter names.
 *varargs* is the name of the ``*`` parameter or ``None`` if arbitrary
 positional arguments are not accepted.
 *varkw* is the name of the ``**`` parameter or ``None`` if arbitrary
 keyword arguments are not accepted.
 *defaults* is an *n*-tuple of default argument values corresponding to the
 last *n* positional parameters, or ``None`` if there are no such defaults
 defined.
 *kwonlyargs* is a list of keyword-only parameter names in declaration order.
 *kwonlydefaults* is a dictionary mapping parameter names from *kwonlyargs*
 to the default values used if no argument is supplied.
 *annotations* is a dictionary mapping parameter names to annotations.
 The special key ``"return"`` is used to report the function return value
 annotation (if any).

Note that :func:`signature` and
 :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>` provide the recommended
 API for callable introspection, and support additional behaviours (like
 positional-only arguments) that are sometimes encountered in extension module
 APIs. This function is retained primarily for use in code that needs to
 maintain compatibility with the Python 2 ``inspect`` module API.

.. versionchanged:: 3.4
 This function is now based on :func:`signature`, but still ignores
 ``__wrapped__`` attributes and includes the already bound first
 parameter in the signature output for bound methods.

.. versionchanged:: 3.6
 This method was previously documented as deprecated in favour of
 :func:`signature` in Python 3.5, but that decision has been reversed
 in order to restore a clearly supported standard interface for
 single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away from the legacy
 :func:`getargspec` API.

.. function:: getargvalues(frame)

Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame. A
 :term:`named tuple` ``ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)`` is
 returned. *args* is a list of the argument names. *varargs* and *keywords*
 are the names of the ``*`` and ``**`` arguments or ``None``. *locals* is the
 locals dictionary of the given frame.

.. note::
 This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.

.. function:: formatargspec(args[, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations[, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue, formatreturns, formatannotations]])

Format a pretty argument spec from the values returned by
 :func:`getfullargspec`.

The first seven arguments are (``args``, ``varargs``, ``varkw``,
 ``defaults``, ``kwonlyargs``, ``kwonlydefaults``, ``annotations``).

The other six arguments are functions that are called to turn argument names,
 ``*`` argument name, ``**`` argument name, default values, return annotation
 and individual annotations into strings, respectively.

For example:

>>> from inspect import formatargspec, getfullargspec
 >>> def f(a: int, b: float):
 ... pass
 ...
 >>> formatargspec(*getfullargspec(f))
 '(a: int, b: float)'

.. deprecated:: 3.5
 Use :func:`signature` and
 :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>`, which provide a
 better introspecting API for callables.

.. function:: formatargvalues(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])

Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by
 :func:`getargvalues`. The format\* arguments are the corresponding optional
 formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings.

.. note::
 This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.

.. function:: getmro(cls)

Return a tuple of class cls's base classes, including cls, in method resolution
 order. No class appears more than once in this tuple. Note that the method
 resolution order depends on cls's type. Unless a very peculiar user-defined
 metatype is in use, cls will be the first element of the tuple.

.. function:: getcallargs(func, /, *args, **kwds)

Bind the *args* and *kwds* to the argument names of the Python function or
 method *func*, as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the
 first argument (typically named ``self``) to the associated instance. A dict
 is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the ``*`` and
 ``**`` arguments, if any) to their values from *args* and *kwds*. In case of
 invoking *func* incorrectly, i.e. whenever ``func(*args, **kwds)`` would raise
 an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type
 and the same or similar message is raised. For example::

>>> from inspect import getcallargs
 >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
 ... pass
 >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
 True
 >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
 True
 >>> getcallargs(f)
 Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
 TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'

.. versionadded:: 3.2

.. deprecated:: 3.5
 Use :meth:`Signature.bind` and :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` instead.

.. function:: getclosurevars(func)

Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or
 method *func* to their current values. A
 :term:`named tuple` ``ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)``
 is returned. *nonlocals* maps referenced names to lexical closure
 variables, *globals* to the function's module globals and *builtins* to
 the builtins visible from the function body. *unbound* is the set of names
 referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all given the
 current module globals and builtins.

:exc:`TypeError` is raised if *func* is not a Python function or method.

.. versionadded:: 3.3

.. function:: unwrap(func, *, stop=None)

Get the object wrapped by *func*. It follows the chain of :attr:`__wrapped__`
 attributes returning the last object in the chain.

*stop* is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper chain
 as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be terminated early if
 the callback returns a true value. If the callback never returns a true
 value, the last object in the chain is returned as usual. For example,
 :func:`signature` uses this to stop unwrapping if any object in the
 chain has a ``__signature__`` attribute defined.

:exc:`ValueError` is raised if a cycle is encountered.

.. versionadded:: 3.4

.. _inspect-stack:

The interpreter stack
---------------------

When the following functions return "frame records," each record is a
:term:`named tuple`
``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``.
The tuple contains the frame object, the filename, the line number of the
current line,
the function name, a list of lines of context from the source code, and the
index of the current line within that list.

.. versionchanged:: 3.5
 Return a named tuple instead of a tuple.

.. note::

Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first element of the frame
 records these functions return, can cause your program to create reference
 cycles. Once a reference cycle has been created, the lifespan of all objects
 which can be accessed from the objects which form the cycle can become much
 longer even if Python's optional cycle detector is enabled. If such cycles must
 be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly broken to avoid the
 delayed destruction of objects and increased memory consumption which occurs.

Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the frames (and local
 variables) can be made deterministic by removing the cycle in a
 :keyword:`finally` clause. This is also important if the cycle detector was
 disabled when Python was compiled or using :func:`gc.disable`. For example::

def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
 frame = inspect.currentframe()
 try:
 # do something with the frame
 finally:
 del frame

If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a traceback
 later), you can also break reference cycles by using the
 :meth:`frame.clear` method.

The optional *context* argument supported by most of these functions specifies
the number of lines of context to return, which are centered around the current
line.

.. function:: getframeinfo(frame, context=1)

Get information about a frame or traceback object. A :term:`named tuple`
 ``Traceback(filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)`` is returned.

.. function:: getouterframes(frame, context=1)

Get a list of frame records for a frame and all outer frames. These frames
 represent the calls that lead to the creation of *frame*. The first entry in the
 returned list represents *frame*; the last entry represents the outermost call
 on *frame*'s stack.

.. versionchanged:: 3.5
 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
 ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
 is returned.

.. function:: getinnerframes(traceback, context=1)

Get a list of frame records for a traceback's frame and all inner frames. These
 frames represent calls made as a consequence of *frame*. The first entry in the
 list represents *traceback*; the last entry represents where the exception was
 raised.

.. versionchanged:: 3.5
 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
 ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
 is returned.

.. function:: currentframe()

Return the frame object for the caller's stack frame.

.. impl-detail::

This function relies on Python stack frame support in the interpreter,
 which isn't guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. If
 running in an implementation without Python stack frame support this
 function returns ``None``.

.. function:: stack(context=1)

Return a list of frame records for the caller's stack. The first entry in the
 returned list represents the caller; the last entry represents the outermost
 call on the stack.

.. versionchanged:: 3.5
 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
 ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
 is returned.

.. function:: trace(context=1)

Return a list of frame records for the stack between the current frame and the
 frame in which an exception currently being handled was raised in. The first
 entry in the list represents the caller; the last entry represents where the
 exception was raised.

.. versionchanged:: 3.5
 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
 ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
 is returned.

Fetching attributes statically
------------------------------

Both :func:`getattr` and :func:`hasattr` can trigger code execution when
fetching or checking for the existence of attributes. Descriptors, like
properties, will be invoked and :meth:`__getattr__` and :meth:`__getattribute__`
may be called.

For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation tools, this
can be inconvenient. :func:`getattr_static` has the same signature as :func:`getattr`
but avoids executing code when it fetches attributes.

.. function:: getattr_static(obj, attr, default=None)

Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the
 descriptor protocol, :meth:`__getattr__` or :meth:`__getattribute__`.

Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes
 that getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes)
 and may find attributes that getattr can't (like descriptors
 that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptors objects
 instead of instance members.

If the instance :attr:`~object.__dict__` is shadowed by another member (for
 example a property) then this function will be unable to find instance
 members.

.. versionadded:: 3.2

:func:`getattr_static` does not resolve descriptors, for example slot descriptors or
getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The descriptor object
is returned instead of the underlying attribute.

You can handle these with code like the following. Note that
for arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger
code execution::

# example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
 class _foo:
 __slots__ = ['foo']

slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
 getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
 wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
 descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
 if type(result) in descriptor_types:
 try:
 result = result.__get__()
 except AttributeError:
 # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
 # indicate there is no underlying value
 # in which case the descriptor itself will
 # have to do
 pass

Current State of Generators and Coroutines
------------------------------------------

When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of
generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently
executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already
terminated. :func:`getgeneratorstate` allows the current state of a
generator to be determined easily.

.. function:: getgeneratorstate(generator)

Get current state of a generator-iterator.

Possible states are:
 * GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.
 * GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.
 * GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.
 * GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

.. versionadded:: 3.2

.. function:: getcoroutinestate(coroutine)

Get current state of a coroutine object. The function is intended to be
 used with coroutine objects created by :keyword:`async def` functions, but
 will accept any coroutine-like object that has ``cr_running`` and
 ``cr_frame`` attributes.

Possible states are:
 * CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.
 * CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.
 * CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression.
 * CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

.. versionadded:: 3.5

The current internal state of the generator can also be queried. This is
mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is being
updated as expected:

.. function:: getgeneratorlocals(generator)

Get the mapping of live local variables in *generator* to their current
 values. A dictionary is returned that maps from variable names to values.
 This is the equivalent of calling :func:`locals` in the body of the
 generator, and all the same caveats apply.

If *generator* is a :term:`generator` with no currently associated frame,
 then an empty dictionary is returned. :exc:`TypeError` is raised if
 *generator* is not a Python generator object.

.. impl-detail::

This function relies on the generator exposing a Python stack frame
 for introspection, which isn't guaranteed to be the case in all
 implementations of Python. In such cases, this function will always
 return an empty dictionary.

.. versionadded:: 3.3

.. function:: getcoroutinelocals(coroutine)

This function is analogous to :func:`~inspect.getgeneratorlocals`, but
 works for coroutine objects created by :keyword:`async def` functions.

.. versionadded:: 3.5

.. _inspect-module-co-flags:

Code Objects Bit Flags
----------------------

Python code objects have a ``co_flags`` attribute, which is a bitmap of
the following flags:

.. data:: CO_OPTIMIZED

The code object is optimized, using fast locals.

.. data:: CO_NEWLOCALS

If set, a new dict will be created for the frame's ``f_locals`` when
 the code object is executed.

.. data:: CO_VARARGS

The code object has a variable positional parameter (``*args``-like).

.. data:: CO_VARKEYWORDS

The code object has a variable keyword parameter (``**kwargs``-like).

.. data:: CO_NESTED

The flag is set when the code object is a nested function.

.. data:: CO_GENERATOR

The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e.
 a generator object is returned when the code object is executed.

.. data:: CO_NOFREE

The flag is set if there are no free or cell variables.

.. data:: CO_COROUTINE

The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function.
 When the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object.
 See :pep:`492` for more details.

.. versionadded:: 3.5

.. data:: CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE

The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based
 coroutines. Generator objects with this flag can be used in
 ``await`` expression, and can ``yield from`` coroutine objects.
 See :pep:`492` for more details.

.. versionadded:: 3.5

.. data:: CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR

The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator
 function. When the code object is executed it returns an
 asynchronous generator object. See :pep:`525` for more details.

.. versionadded:: 3.6

.. note::
 The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in other
 Python implementations. Furthermore, the flags are an implementation
 detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future Python releases.
 It's recommended to use public APIs from the :mod:`inspect` module
 for any introspection needs.

.. _inspect-module-cli:

Command Line Interface
----------------------

The :mod:`inspect` module also provides a basic introspection capability
from the command line.

.. program:: inspect

By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that
module. A class or function within the module can be printed instead by
appended a colon and the qualified name of the target object.

.. cmdoption:: --details

Print information about the specified object rather than the source code

Copy Edit Raw Blame History

zhangweibo authored 2021年11月16日 09:46 +08:00 . git init

:mod:`inspect` --- Inspect live objects

.. module:: inspect
 :synopsis: Extract information and source code from live objects.

.. moduleauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org>

.. sectionauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org>

Source code: :source:`Lib/inspect.py`

The :mod:`inspect` module provides several useful functions to help get information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods, functions, tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects. For example, it can help you examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code of a method, extract and format the argument list for a function, or get all the information you need to display a detailed traceback.

There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type checking, getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and examining the interpreter stack.

Types and members

The :func:`getmembers` function retrieves the members of an object such as a class or module. The functions whose names begin with "is" are mainly provided as convenient choices for the second argument to :func:`getmembers`. They also help you determine when you can expect to find the following special attributes:

Type	Attribute	Description
module	__doc__	documentation string
__file__	filename (missing for built-in modules)
class	__doc__	documentation string
__name__	name with which this class was defined
__qualname__	qualified name
__module__	name of module in which this class was defined
method	__doc__	documentation string
__name__	name with which this method was defined
__qualname__	qualified name
__func__	function object containing implementation of method
__self__	instance to which this method is bound, or `None`
function	__doc__	documentation string
__name__	name with which this function was defined
__qualname__	qualified name
__code__	code object containing compiled function :term:`bytecode`
__defaults__	tuple of any default values for positional or keyword parameters
__kwdefaults__	mapping of any default values for keyword-only parameters
__globals__	global namespace in which this function was defined
__annotations__	mapping of parameters names to annotations; `"return"` key is reserved for return annotations.
traceback	tb_frame	frame object at this level
tb_lasti	index of last attempted instruction in bytecode
tb_lineno	current line number in Python source code
tb_next	next inner traceback object (called by this level)
frame	f_back	next outer frame object (this frame's caller)
f_builtins	builtins namespace seen by this frame
f_code	code object being executed in this frame
f_globals	global namespace seen by this frame
f_lasti	index of last attempted instruction in bytecode
f_lineno	current line number in Python source code
f_locals	local namespace seen by this frame
f_trace	tracing function for this frame, or `None`
code	co_argcount	number of arguments (not including keyword only arguments, * or ** args)
co_code	string of raw compiled bytecode
co_cellvars	tuple of names of cell variables (referenced by containing scopes)
co_consts	tuple of constants used in the bytecode
co_filename	name of file in which this code object was created
co_firstlineno	number of first line in Python source code
co_flags	bitmap of `CO_*` flags, read more :ref:`here <inspect-module-co-flags>`
co_lnotab	encoded mapping of line numbers to bytecode indices
co_freevars	tuple of names of free variables (referenced via a function's closure)
co_posonlyargcount	number of positional only arguments
co_kwonlyargcount	number of keyword only arguments (not including ** arg)
co_name	name with which this code object was defined
co_names	tuple of names of local variables
co_nlocals	number of local variables
co_stacksize	virtual machine stack space required
co_varnames	tuple of names of arguments and local variables
generator	__name__	name
__qualname__	qualified name
gi_frame	frame
gi_running	is the generator running?
gi_code	code
gi_yieldfrom	object being iterated by `yield from`, or `None`
coroutine	__name__	name
__qualname__	qualified name
cr_await	object being awaited on, or `None`
cr_frame	frame
cr_running	is the coroutine running?
cr_code	code
cr_origin	where coroutine was created, or `None`. See \|coroutine-origin-link\|
builtin	__doc__	documentation string
__name__	original name of this function or method
__qualname__	qualified name
__self__	instance to which a method is bound, or `None`

.. versionchanged:: 3.5

 Add ``__qualname__`` and ``gi_yieldfrom`` attributes to generators.

 The ``__name__`` attribute of generators is now set from the function
 name, instead of the code name, and it can now be modified.

.. versionchanged:: 3.7

 Add ``cr_origin`` attribute to coroutines.

.. function:: getmembers(object[, predicate])

 Return all the members of an object in a list of ``(name, value)``
 pairs sorted by name. If the optional *predicate* argument—which will be
 called with the ``value`` object of each member—is supplied, only members
 for which the predicate returns a true value are included.

 .. note::

 :func:`getmembers` will only return class attributes defined in the
 metaclass when the argument is a class and those attributes have been
 listed in the metaretrieving-source-code">

Retrieving source code
.. function:: getdoc(object)

 Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with :func:`cleandoc`.
 If the documentation string for an object is not provided and the object is
 a class, a method, a property or a descriptor, retrieve the documentation
 string from the inheritance hierarchy.

 .. versionchanged:: 3.5
 Documentation strings are now inherited if not overridden.



.. function:: getcomments(object)

 Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately preceding the
 object's source code (for a class, function, or method), or at the top of the
 Python source file (if the object is a module). If the object's source code
 is unavailable, return ``None``. This could happen if the object has been
 defined in C or the interactive shell.



.. function:: getfile(object)

 Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined.
 This will fail with a :exc:`TypeError` if the object is a built-in module,
 class, or function.



.. function:: getmodule(object)

 Try to guess which module an object was defined in.



.. function:: getsourcefile(object)

 Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined. This
 will fail with a :exc:`TypeError` if the object is a built-in module, class, or
 function.



.. function:: getsourcelines(object)

 Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The
 argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code
 object. The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the
 object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first
 line of code was found. An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the source code cannot
 be retrieved.

 .. versionchanged:: 3.3
 :exc:`OSError` is raised instead of :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of the
 former.



.. function:: getsource(object)

 Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module,
 class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is
 returned as a single string. An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the source code
 cannot be retrieved.

 .. versionchanged:: 3.3
 :exc:`OSError` is raised instead of :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of the
 former.



.. function:: cleandoc(doc)

 Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up with blocks
 of code.

 All leading whitespace is removed from the first line. Any leading whitespace
 that can be uniformly removed from the second line onwards is removed. Empty
 lines at the beginning and end are subsequently removed. Also, all tabs are
 expanded to spaces.





Introspecting callables with the Signature object
.. versionadded:: 3.3


The Signature object represents the call signature of a callable object and its
return annotation. To retrieve a Signature object, use the :func:`signature`
function.
.. function:: signature(callable, \*, follow_wrapped=True)

 Return a :class:`Signature` object for the given ``callable``::

 >>> from inspect import signature
 >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
 ... pass

 >>> sig = signature(foo)

 >>> str(sig)
 '(a, *, b:int, **kwargs)'

 >>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
 'b:int'

 >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
 <class 'int'>

 Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and classes to
 :func:`functools.partial` objects.

 Raises :exc:`ValueError` if no signature can be provided, and
 :exc:`TypeError` if that type of object is not supported.

 A slash(/) in the signature of a function denotes that the parameters prior
 to it are positional-only. For more info, see
 :ref:`the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters <faq-positional-only-arguments>`.

 .. versionadded:: 3.5
 ``follow_wrapped`` parameter. Pass ``False`` to get a signature of
 ``callable`` specifically (``callable.__wrapped__`` will not be used to
 unwrap decorated callables.)

 .. note::

 Some callables may not be introspectable in certain implementations of
 Python. For example, in CPython, some built-in functions defined in
 C provide no metadata about their arguments.



Result of a :meth:`Signature.bind` or :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` call.
Holds the mapping of arguments to the function's parameters.
.. attribute:: BoundArguments.arguments

 An ordered, mutable mapping (:class:`collections.OrderedDict`) of
 parameters' names to arguments' values. Contains only explicitly bound
 arguments. Changes in :attr:`arguments` will reflect in :attr:`args` and
 :attr:`kwargs`.

 Should be used in conjunction with :attr:`Signature.parameters` for any
 argument processing purposes.

 .. note::

 Arguments for which :meth:`Signature.bind` or
 :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` relied on a default value are skipped.
 However, if needed, use :meth:`BoundArguments.apply_defaults` to add
 them.


.. attribute:: BoundArguments.args

 A tuple of positional arguments values. Dynamically computed from the
 :attr:`arguments` attribute.


.. attribute:: BoundArguments.kwargs

 A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the
 :attr:`arguments` attribute.


.. attribute:: BoundArguments.signature

 A reference to the parent :class:`Signature` object.


.. method:: BoundArguments.apply_defaults()

 Set default values for missing arguments.

 For variable-positional arguments (``*args``) the default is an
 empty tuple.

 For variable-keyword arguments (``**kwargs``) the default is an
 empty dict.

 ::

 >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
 >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
 >>> ba.apply_defaults()
 >>> ba.arguments
 OrderedDict([('a', 'spam'), ('b', 'ham'), ('args', ())])

 .. versionadded:: 3.5


The :attr:`args` and :attr:`kwargs` properties can be used to invoke
functions:
def test(a, *, b):
 ...

sig = signature(test)
ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)

.. seealso::

 :pep:`362` - Function Signature Object.
 The detailed specification, implementation details and examples.





Classes and functions
.. function:: getclasstree(classes, unique=False)

 Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists. Where a
 nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the class whose entry
 immediately precedes the list. Each entry is a 2-tuple containing a class and a
 tuple of its base classes. If the *unique* argument is true, exactly one entry
 appears in the returned structure for each class in the given list. Otherwise,
 classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will appear multiple
 times.



.. function:: getargspec(func)

 Get the names and default values of a Python function's parameters. A
 :term:`named tuple` ``ArgSpec(args, varargs, keywords, defaults)`` is
 returned. *args* is a list of the parameter names. *varargs* and *keywords*
 are the names of the ``*`` and ``**`` parameters or ``None``. *defaults* is a
 tuple of default argument values or ``None`` if there are no default
 arguments; if this tuple has *n* elements, they correspond to the last
 *n* elements listed in *args*.

 .. deprecated:: 3.0
 Use :func:`getfullargspec` for an updated API that is usually a drop-in
 replacement, but also correctly handles function annotations and
 keyword-only parameters.

 Alternatively, use :func:`signature` and
 :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>`, which provide a
 more structured introspection API for callables.



.. function:: getfullargspec(func)

 Get the names and default values of a Python function's parameters. A
 :term:`named tuple` is returned:

 ``FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults,
 annotations)``

 *args* is a list of the positional parameter names.
 *varargs* is the name of the ``*`` parameter or ``None`` if arbitrary
 positional arguments are not accepted.
 *varkw* is the name of the ``**`` parameter or ``None`` if arbitrary
 keyword arguments are not accepted.
 *defaults* is an *n*-tuple of default argument values corresponding to the
 last *n* positional parameters, or ``None`` if there are no such defaults
 defined.
 *kwonlyargs* is a list of keyword-only parameter names in declaration order.
 *kwonlydefaults* is a dictionary mapping parameter names from *kwonlyargs*
 to the default values used if no argument is supplied.
 *annotations* is a dictionary mapping parameter names to annotations.
 The special key ``"return"`` is used to report the function return value
 annotation (if any).

 Note that :func:`signature` and
 :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>` provide the recommended
 API for callable introspection, and support additional behaviours (like
 positional-only arguments) that are sometimes encountered in extension module
 APIs. This function is retained primarily for use in code that needs to
 maintain compatibility with the Python 2 ``inspect`` module API.

 .. versionchanged:: 3.4
 This function is now based on :func:`signature`, but still ignores
 ``__wrapped__`` attributes and includes the already bound first
 parameter in the signature output for bound methods.

 .. versionchanged:: 3.6
 This method was previously documented as deprecated in favour of
 :func:`signature` in Python 3.5, but that decision has been reversed
 in order to restore a clearly supported standard interface for
 single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away from the legacy
 :func:`getargspec` API.

 .. versionchanged:: 3.7
 Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration
 order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice
 this order had always been preserved in Python 3.



.. function:: getargvalues(frame)

 Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame. A
 :term:`named tuple` ``ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)`` is
 returned. *args* is a list of the argument names. *varargs* and *keywords*
 are the names of the ``*`` and ``**`` arguments or ``None``. *locals* is the
 locals dictionary of the given frame.

 .. note::
 This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.



.. function:: formatargspec(args[, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations[, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue, formatreturns, formatannotations]])

 Format a pretty argument spec from the values returned by
 :func:`getfullargspec`.

 The first seven arguments are (``args``, ``varargs``, ``varkw``,
 ``defaults``, ``kwonlyargs``, ``kwonlydefaults``, ``annotations``).

 The other six arguments are functions that are called to turn argument names,
 ``*`` argument name, ``**`` argument name, default values, return annotation
 and individual annotations into strings, respectively.

 For example:

 >>> from inspect import formatargspec, getfullargspec
 >>> def f(a: int, b: float):
 ... pass
 ...
 >>> formatargspec(*getfullargspec(f))
 '(a: int, b: float)'

 .. deprecated:: 3.5
 Use :func:`signature` and
 :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>`, which provide a
 better introspecting API for callables.



.. function:: formatargvalues(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])

 Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by
 :func:`getargvalues`. The format\* arguments are the corresponding optional
 formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings.

 .. note::
 This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.



.. function:: getmro(cls)

 Return a tuple of class cls's base classes, including cls, in method resolution
 order. No class appears more than once in this tuple. Note that the method
 resolution order depends on cls's type. Unless a very peculiar user-defined
 metatype is in use, cls will be the first element of the tuple.



.. function:: getcallargs(func, /, *args, **kwds)

 Bind the *args* and *kwds* to the argument names of the Python function or
 method *func*, as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the
 first argument (typically named ``self``) to the associated instance. A dict
 is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the ``*`` and
 ``**`` arguments, if any) to their values from *args* and *kwds*. In case of
 invoking *func* incorrectly, i.e. whenever ``func(*args, **kwds)`` would raise
 an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type
 and the same or similar message is raised. For example::

 >>> from inspect import getcallargs
 >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
 ... pass
 >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
 True
 >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
 True
 >>> getcallargs(f)
 Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
 TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'

 .. versionadded:: 3.2

 .. deprecated:: 3.5
 Use :meth:`Signature.bind` and :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` instead.



.. function:: getclosurevars(func)

 Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or
 method *func* to their current values. A
 :term:`named tuple` ``ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)``
 is returned. *nonlocals* maps referenced names to lexical closure
 variables, *globals* to the function's module globals and *builtins* to
 the builtins visible from the function body. *unbound* is the set of names
 referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all given the
 current module globals and builtins.

 :exc:`TypeError` is raised if *func* is not a Python function or method.

 .. versionadded:: 3.3



.. function:: unwrap(func, *, stop=None)

 Get the object wrapped by *func*. It follows the chain of :attr:`__wrapped__`
 attributes returning the last object in the chain.

 *stop* is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper chain
 as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be terminated early if
 the callback returns a true value. If the callback never returns a true
 value, the last object in the chain is returned as usual. For example,
 :func:`signature` uses this to stop unwrapping if any object in the
 chain has a ``__signature__`` attribute defined.

 :exc:`ValueError` is raised if a cycle is encountered.

 .. versionadded:: 3.4





The interpreter stack
When the following functions return "frame records," each record is a
:term:`named tuple`
FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index).
The tuple contains the frame object, the filename, the line number of the
current line,
the function name, a list of lines of context from the source code, and the
index of the current line within that list.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
 Return a named tuple instead of a tuple.



Note
Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first element of the frame
records these functions return, can cause your program to create reference
cycles. Once a reference cycle has been created, the lifespan of all objects
which can be accessed from the objects which form the cycle can become much
longer even if Python's optional cycle detector is enabled. If such cycles must
be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly broken to avoid the
delayed destruction of objects and increased memory consumption which occurs.
Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the frames (and local
variables) can be made deterministic by removing the cycle in a
:keyword:`finally` clause. This is also important if the cycle detector was
disabled when Python was compiled or using :func:`gc.disable`. For example:
def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
 frame = inspect.currentframe()
 try:
 # do something with the frame
 finally:
 del frame

If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a traceback
later), you can also break reference cycles by using the
:meth:`frame.clear` method.

The optional context argument supported by most of these functions specifies
the number of lines of context to return, which are centered around the current
line.
.. function:: getframeinfo(frame, context=1)

 Get information about a frame or traceback object. A :term:`named tuple`
 ``Traceback(filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)`` is returned.



.. function:: getouterframes(frame, context=1)

 Get a list of frame records for a frame and all outer frames. These frames
 represent the calls that lead to the creation of *frame*. The first entry in the
 returned list represents *frame*; the last entry represents the outermost call
 on *frame*'s stack.

 .. versionchanged:: 3.5
 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
 ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
 is returned.



.. function:: getinnerframes(traceback, context=1)

 Get a list of frame records for a traceback's frame and all inner frames. These
 frames represent calls made as a consequence of *frame*. The first entry in the
 list represents *traceback*; the last entry represents where the exception was
 raised.

 .. versionchanged:: 3.5
 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
 ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
 is returned.



.. function:: currentframe()

 Return the frame object for the caller's stack frame.

 .. impl-detail::

 This function relies on Python stack frame support in the interpreter,
 which isn't guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. If
 running in an implementation without Python stack frame support this
 function returns ``None``.



.. function:: stack(context=1)

 Return a list of frame records for the caller's stack. The first entry in the
 returned list represents the caller; the last entry represents the outermost
 call on the stack.

 .. versionchanged:: 3.5
 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
 ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
 is returned.



.. function:: trace(context=1)

 Return a list of frame records for the stack between the current frame and the
 frame in which an exception currently being handled was raised in. The first
 entry in the list represents the caller; the last entry represents where the
 exception was raised.

 .. versionchanged:: 3.5
 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
 ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
 is returned.





Fetching attributes statically
Both :func:`getattr` and :func:`hasattr` can trigger code execution when
fetching or checking for the existence of attributes. Descriptors, like
properties, will be invoked and :meth:`__getattr__` and :meth:`__getattribute__`
may be called.
For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation tools, this
can be inconvenient. :func:`getattr_static` has the same signature as :func:`getattr`
but avoids executing code when it fetches attributes.
.. function:: getattr_static(obj, attr, default=None)

 Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the
 descriptor protocol, :meth:`__getattr__` or :meth:`__getattribute__`.

 Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes
 that getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes)
 and may find attributes that getattr can't (like descriptors
 that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptors objects
 instead of instance members.

 If the instance :attr:`~object.__dict__` is shadowed by another member (for
 example a property) then this function will be unable to find instance
 members.

 .. versionadded:: 3.2


:func:`getattr_static` does not resolve descriptors, for example slot descriptors or
getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The descriptor object
is returned instead of the underlying attribute.
You can handle these with code like the following. Note that
for arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger
code execution:
# example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
class _foo:
 __slots__ = ['foo']

slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
if type(result) in descriptor_types:
 try:
 result = result.__get__()
 except AttributeError:
 # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
 # indicate there is no underlying value
 # in which case the descriptor itself will
 # have to do
 pass



Current State of Generators and Coroutines
When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of
generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently
executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already
terminated. :func:`getgeneratorstate` allows the current state of a
generator to be determined easily.
.. function:: getgeneratorstate(generator)

 Get current state of a generator-iterator.

 Possible states are:
 * GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.
 * GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.
 * GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.
 * GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

 .. versionadded:: 3.2


.. function:: getcoroutinestate(coroutine)

 Get current state of a coroutine object. The function is intended to be
 used with coroutine objects created by :keyword:`async def` functions, but
 will accept any coroutine-like object that has ``cr_running`` and
 ``cr_frame`` attributes.

 Possible states are:
 * CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.
 * CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.
 * CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression.
 * CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

 .. versionadded:: 3.5


The current internal state of the generator can also be queried. This is
mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is being
updated as expected:
.. function:: getgeneratorlocals(generator)

 Get the mapping of live local variables in *generator* to their current
 values. A dictionary is returned that maps from variable names to values.
 This is the equivalent of calling :func:`locals` in the body of the
 generator, and all the same caveats apply.

 If *generator* is a :term:`generator` with no currently associated frame,
 then an empty dictionary is returned. :exc:`TypeError` is raised if
 *generator* is not a Python generator object.

 .. impl-detail::

 This function relies on the generator exposing a Python stack frame
 for introspection, which isn't guaranteed to be the case in all
 implementations of Python. In such cases, this function will always
 return an empty dictionary.

 .. versionadded:: 3.3


.. function:: getcoroutinelocals(coroutine)

 This function is analogous to :func:`~inspect.getgeneratorlocals`, but
 works for coroutine objects created by :keyword:`async def` functions.

 .. versionadded:: 3.5





Code Objects Bit Flags
Python code objects have a co_flags attribute, which is a bitmap of
the following flags:
.. data:: CO_OPTIMIZED

 The code object is optimized, using fast locals.


.. data:: CO_NEWLOCALS

 If set, a new dict will be created for the frame's ``f_locals`` when
 the code object is executed.


.. data:: CO_VARARGS

 The code object has a variable positional parameter (``*args``-like).


.. data:: CO_VARKEYWORDS

 The code object has a variable keyword parameter (``**kwargs``-like).


.. data:: CO_NESTED

 The flag is set when the code object is a nested function.


.. data:: CO_GENERATOR

 The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e.
 a generator object is returned when the code object is executed.


.. data:: CO_NOFREE

 The flag is set if there are no free or cell variables.


.. data:: CO_COROUTINE

 The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function.
 When the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object.
 See :pep:`492` for more details.

 .. versionadded:: 3.5


.. data:: CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE

 The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based
 coroutines. Generator objects with this flag can be used in
 ``await`` expression, and can ``yield from`` coroutine objects.
 See :pep:`492` for more details.

 .. versionadded:: 3.5


.. data:: CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR

 The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator
 function. When the code object is executed it returns an
 asynchronous generator object. See :pep:`525` for more details.

 .. versionadded:: 3.6



Note
The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in other
Python implementations. Furthermore, the flags are an implementation
detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future Python releases.
It's recommended to use public APIs from the :mod:`inspect` module
for any introspection needs.



Command Line Interface
The :mod:`inspect` module also provides a basic introspection capability
from the command line.
.. program:: inspect


By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that
module. A class or function within the module can be printed instead by
appended a colon and the qualified name of the target object.
.. cmdoption:: --details

 Print information about the specified object rather than the source code