Polarization of an algebraic form

In mathematics, in particular in algebra, polarization is a technique for expressing a homogeneous polynomial in a simpler fashion by adjoining more variables. Specifically, given a homogeneous polynomial, polarization produces a unique symmetric multilinear form from which the original polynomial can be recovered by evaluating along a certain diagonal.

Although the technique is deceptively simple, it has applications in many areas of abstract mathematics: in particular to algebraic geometry, invariant theory, and representation theory. Polarization and related techniques form the foundations for Weyl's invariant theory.

The fundamental ideas are as follows. Let ${\displaystyle f(\mathbf {u} )}${\displaystyle f(\mathbf {u} )} be a polynomial in ${\displaystyle n}${\displaystyle n} variables ${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} =\left(u_{1},u_{2},\ldots ,u_{n}\right).}${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} =\left(u_{1},u_{2},\ldots ,u_{n}\right).} Suppose that ${\displaystyle f}${\displaystyle f} is homogeneous of degree ${\displaystyle d,}${\displaystyle d,} which means that $${\displaystyle f(t\mathbf {u} )=t^{d}f(\mathbf {u} )\quad {\text{ for all }}t.}$${\displaystyle f(t\mathbf {u} )=t^{d}f(\mathbf {u} )\quad {\text{ for all }}t.}

Let ${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} ^{(1)},\mathbf {u} ^{(2)},\ldots ,\mathbf {u} ^{(d)}}${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} ^{(1)},\mathbf {u} ^{(2)},\ldots ,\mathbf {u} ^{(d)}} be a collection of indeterminates with ${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} ^{(i)}=\left(u_{1}^{(i)},u_{2}^{(i)},\ldots ,u_{n}^{(i)}\right),}${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} ^{(i)}=\left(u_{1}^{(i)},u_{2}^{(i)},\ldots ,u_{n}^{(i)}\right),} so that there are ${\displaystyle dn}${\displaystyle dn} variables altogether. The polar form of ${\displaystyle f}${\displaystyle f} is a polynomial $${\displaystyle F\left(\mathbf {u} ^{(1)},\mathbf {u} ^{(2)},\ldots ,\mathbf {u} ^{(d)}\right)}$${\displaystyle F\left(\mathbf {u} ^{(1)},\mathbf {u} ^{(2)},\ldots ,\mathbf {u} ^{(d)}\right)} which is linear separately in each ${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} ^{(i)}}${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} ^{(i)}} (that is, ${\displaystyle F}${\displaystyle F} is multilinear), symmetric in the ${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} ^{(i)},}${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} ^{(i)},} and such that $${\displaystyle F\left(\mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {u} ,\ldots ,\mathbf {u} \right)=f(\mathbf {u} ).}$${\displaystyle F\left(\mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {u} ,\ldots ,\mathbf {u} \right)=f(\mathbf {u} ).}

The polar form of ${\displaystyle f}${\displaystyle f} is given by the following construction $${\displaystyle F\left({\mathbf {u} }^{(1)},\dots ,{\mathbf {u} }^{(d)}\right)={\frac {1}{d!}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial \lambda _{1}}}\dots {\frac {\partial }{\partial \lambda _{d}}}f(\lambda _{1}{\mathbf {u} }^{(1)}+\dots +\lambda _{d}{\mathbf {u} }^{(d)})|_{\lambda =0}.}$${\displaystyle F\left({\mathbf {u} }^{(1)},\dots ,{\mathbf {u} }^{(d)}\right)={\frac {1}{d!}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial \lambda _{1}}}\dots {\frac {\partial }{\partial \lambda _{d}}}f(\lambda _{1}{\mathbf {u} }^{(1)}+\dots +\lambda _{d}{\mathbf {u} }^{(d)})|_{\lambda =0}.} In other words, ${\displaystyle F}${\displaystyle F} is a constant multiple of the coefficient of ${\displaystyle \lambda _{1}\lambda _{2}\ldots \lambda _{d}}${\displaystyle \lambda _{1}\lambda _{2}\ldots \lambda _{d}} in the expansion of ${\displaystyle f\left(\lambda _{1}\mathbf {u} ^{(1)}+\cdots +\lambda _{d}\mathbf {u} ^{(d)}\right).}${\displaystyle f\left(\lambda _{1}\mathbf {u} ^{(1)}+\cdots +\lambda _{d}\mathbf {u} ^{(d)}\right).}

A quadratic example. Suppose that ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =(x,y)}${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =(x,y)} and ${\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} )}${\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} )} is the quadratic form $${\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} )=x^{2}+3xy+2y^{2}.}$${\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} )=x^{2}+3xy+2y^{2}.} Then the polarization of ${\displaystyle f}${\displaystyle f} is a function in ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ^{(1)}=(x^{(1)},y^{(1)})}${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ^{(1)}=(x^{(1)},y^{(1)})} and ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ^{(2)}=(x^{(2)},y^{(2)})}${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ^{(2)}=(x^{(2)},y^{(2)})} given by $${\displaystyle F\left(\mathbf {x} ^{(1)},\mathbf {x} ^{(2)}\right)=x^{(1)}x^{(2)}+{\frac {3}{2}}x^{(2)}y^{(1)}+{\frac {3}{2}}x^{(1)}y^{(2)}+2y^{(1)}y^{(2)}.}$${\displaystyle F\left(\mathbf {x} ^{(1)},\mathbf {x} ^{(2)}\right)=x^{(1)}x^{(2)}+{\frac {3}{2}}x^{(2)}y^{(1)}+{\frac {3}{2}}x^{(1)}y^{(2)}+2y^{(1)}y^{(2)}.} More generally, if ${\displaystyle f}${\displaystyle f} is any quadratic form then the polarization of ${\displaystyle f}${\displaystyle f} agrees with the conclusion of the polarization identity.

A cubic example. Let ${\displaystyle f(x,y)=x^{3}+2xy^{2}.}${\displaystyle f(x,y)=x^{3}+2xy^{2}.} Then the polarization of ${\displaystyle f}${\displaystyle f} is given by $${\displaystyle F\left(x^{(1)},y^{(1)},x^{(2)},y^{(2)},x^{(3)},y^{(3)}\right)=x^{(1)}x^{(2)}x^{(3)}+{\frac {2}{3}}x^{(1)}y^{(2)}y^{(3)}+{\frac {2}{3}}x^{(3)}y^{(1)}y^{(2)}+{\frac {2}{3}}x^{(2)}y^{(3)}y^{(1)}.}$${\displaystyle F\left(x^{(1)},y^{(1)},x^{(2)},y^{(2)},x^{(3)},y^{(3)}\right)=x^{(1)}x^{(2)}x^{(3)}+{\frac {2}{3}}x^{(1)}y^{(2)}y^{(3)}+{\frac {2}{3}}x^{(3)}y^{(1)}y^{(2)}+{\frac {2}{3}}x^{(2)}y^{(3)}y^{(1)}.}

The polarization of a homogeneous polynomial of degree ${\displaystyle d}${\displaystyle d} is valid over any commutative ring in which ${\displaystyle d!}${\displaystyle d!} is a unit. In particular, it holds over any field of characteristic zero or whose characteristic is strictly greater than ${\displaystyle d.}${\displaystyle d.}

For simplicity, let ${\displaystyle k}${\displaystyle k} be a field of characteristic zero and let ${\displaystyle A=k[\mathbf {x} ]}${\displaystyle A=k[\mathbf {x} ]} be the polynomial ring in ${\displaystyle n}${\displaystyle n} variables over ${\displaystyle k.}${\displaystyle k.} Then ${\displaystyle A}${\displaystyle A} is graded by degree, so that $${\displaystyle A=\bigoplus _{d}A_{d}.}$${\displaystyle A=\bigoplus _{d}A_{d}.} The polarization of algebraic forms then induces an isomorphism of vector spaces in each degree $${\displaystyle A_{d}\cong \operatorname {Sym} ^{d}k^{n}}$${\displaystyle A_{d}\cong \operatorname {Sym} ^{d}k^{n}} where ${\displaystyle \operatorname {Sym} ^{d}}${\displaystyle \operatorname {Sym} ^{d}} is the ${\displaystyle d}${\displaystyle d}-th symmetric power.

These isomorphisms can be expressed independently of a basis as follows. If ${\displaystyle V}${\displaystyle V} is a finite-dimensional vector space and ${\displaystyle A}${\displaystyle A} is the ring of ${\displaystyle k}${\displaystyle k}-valued polynomial functions on ${\displaystyle V}${\displaystyle V} graded by homogeneous degree, then polarization yields an isomorphism $${\displaystyle A_{d}\cong \operatorname {Sym} ^{d}V^{*}.}$${\displaystyle A_{d}\cong \operatorname {Sym} ^{d}V^{*}.}

Furthermore, the polarization is compatible with the algebraic structure on ${\displaystyle A}${\displaystyle A}, so that $${\displaystyle A\cong \operatorname {Sym} ^{\bullet }V^{*}}$${\displaystyle A\cong \operatorname {Sym} ^{\bullet }V^{*}} where ${\displaystyle \operatorname {Sym} ^{\bullet }V^{*}}${\displaystyle \operatorname {Sym} ^{\bullet }V^{*}} is the full symmetric algebra over ${\displaystyle V^{*}.}${\displaystyle V^{*}.}

• For fields of positive characteristic ${\displaystyle p,}${\displaystyle p,} the foregoing isomorphisms apply if the graded algebras are truncated at degree ${\displaystyle p-1.}${\displaystyle p-1.}
• There do exist generalizations when ${\displaystyle V}${\displaystyle V} is an infinite-dimensional topological vector space.

• Homogeneous function – Function with a multiplicative scaling behaviour

• Claudio Procesi (2007) Lie Groups: an approach through invariants and representations, Springer, ISBN 9780387260402 .

• Abstract algebra
• Homogeneous polynomials

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