Jump to content
Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia

Cancer prevention

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Taking measures to decrease cancer incidence
This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2024)

Cancer prevention is the practice of taking active measures to decrease the incidence of cancer and mortality.[1] [2] The practice of prevention depends on both individual efforts to improve lifestyle and seek preventive screening, and socioeconomic or public policy related to cancer prevention.[3] Globalized cancer prevention is regarded as a critical objective due to its applicability to large populations, reducing long term effects of cancer by promoting proactive health practices and behaviors, and its perceived cost-effectiveness and viability for all socioeconomic classes.[2]

The majority of cancer cases are due to the accumulation of environmental pollution being inherited as epigenetic damage and most of these environmental factors are controllable lifestyle choices.[4] Greater than a reported 75% of cancer deaths could be prevented by avoiding risk factors including: tobacco, overweight / obesity, an insufficient diet, physical inactivity, alcohol, sexually transmitted infections, and air pollution.[5] Not all environmental causes are controllable, such as naturally occurring background radiation, and other cases of cancer are caused through hereditary genetic disorders. Current genetic engineering techniques under development may serve as preventive measures in the future.[6] Future preventive screening measures can be additionally improved by minimizing invasiveness and increasing specificity by taking individual biological makeup into account, also known as "population-based personalized cancer screening."[2]

Death rate adjusted for age for malignant cancer per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.[7]
  no data
  ≤ 55
  55–80
  80–105
  105–130
  130–155
  155–180
  180–205
  205–230
  230–255
  255–280
  280–305
  ≥ 305

While anyone can get cancer,[8] age is one of the biggest factors that increases the risk of cancer: 3 out of 4 cancers are found in people aged 55 or older.

Risk reduction

[edit ]

Dietary

[edit ]
Main article: Diet and cancer
Advertisement for a healthy diet to possibly reduce cancer risk

An average 35% of human cancer mortality is attributed to the diet of the individual.[9] Studies have linked excessive consumption of red or processed meat to an increased risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, and pancreatic cancer, a phenomenon which could be due to the presence of carcinogens in meats cooked at high temperatures.[10] [11] More specifically, a higher risk of breast cancer also has seemed to be associated with a higher intake of meat, including both red and processed meats.[12]

Dietary recommendations for reducing cancer risk typically include an emphasis on vegetables, fruit, whole grains, and fish, and an avoidance of processed and red meat (beef, pork, lamb), animal fats, and refined carbohydrates.[13] [14] The World Cancer Research Fund recommends a diet rich in fruits and vegetables to reduce the risk of cancer. A diet rich in foods of plant origin, including non-starchy fruits and vegetables, non-starchy roots and tubers, and whole grains, may have protective effects against cancer.[15] Consumption of coffee is associated with a reduced risk of liver cancer.[16] Substituting processed foods, such as biscuits, cakes or white bread – which are high in fat, sugars and refined starches – with a plant-based diet may reduce the risk of cancer.[15]

While many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce the risk of cancer, the evidence to support them is not definitive.[13] [14] The primary dietary factors that increase risk are obesity and alcohol consumption; with a diet low in fruits and vegetables and high in red meat being implicated but not confirmed.[17] [18] A 2014 meta-analysis did not find a relationship between consuming fruits and vegetables and reduced cancer risk.[19]

Physical activity

[edit ]

Research shows that regular physical activity may help to reduce cancer up to 30%,[20] [21] [22] with up to 300 minutes per week of moderate to vigorous intensity of physical activity recommended.[23] [24] Even though, the beneficial effect of exercise relative to cancer development is known, there is a lack of clear understanding of the mechanisms underlying this relationship.[25] Some potential mechanisms by which physical activity minimises cancer risk are alterations in free radical generation, alterations in steroid hormones, changes in body composition, and direct effects on the tumour. Different biological pathways involved in cancer have been studied suggesting that physical activity reduces cancer risk by helping weight control,[24] reducing hormones such as estrogen and insulin, reducing inflammation, and strengthening the immune system.[22] [26] Steroid hormones have significant effects on the development of reproductive cancer, and exercise minimises cancer risks by regulating steroid hormones.[25] Similarly, exercise affects cancers that can be controlled by the immune system's ability through immune enhancement.[25]

Medication and supplements

[edit ]

In the general population, NSAIDs reduce the risk of colorectal cancer; however, due to the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal side effects, they cause overall harm when used to lower cancer risk.[27] Aspirin has been found to reduce the risk of death from cancer by about 7%.[28] COX-2 inhibitors may decrease the rate of polyp formation in people with familial adenomatous polyposis however are associated with the same adverse effects as NSAIDs.[29] Daily use of tamoxifen or raloxifene has been demonstrated to reduce the risk of developing breast cancer in high-risk women.[30] The benefit verses harm for 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor such as finasteride is not clear.[31]

Vitamins have not been found to be effective at reducing cancer risk,[32] although low blood levels of vitamin D are correlated with increased cancer risk.[33] [34] Whether this relationship is causal and vitamin D supplementation is protective is not determined.[35] Beta-carotene supplementation has been found to increase lung cancer rates in those who are at high risk.[36] Folic acid supplementation has not been found effective in preventing colon cancer and may increase colon polyps.[37] A 2018 systematic review concluded that selenium has no beneficial effect in reducing the risk of cancer based on high quality evidence.[38]

Avoidance of carcinogens

[edit ]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2024)

The United States National Toxicology Program (NTP) has identified the chemical substances listed below as known human carcinogens in the NTP's 15th Report on Carcinogens. Simply because a substance has been designated as a carcinogen, however, does not mean that the substance will necessarily cause cancer. Many factors influence whether a person exposed to a carcinogen will develop cancer, including the amount and duration of the exposure and the individual's genetic background.[39]

Ingestion

[edit ]

Inhalation

[edit ]

Skin exposure

[edit ]

Vaccination

[edit ]

Anti-cancer vaccines can be preventive or be used as therapeutic treatment.[2] All such vaccines incite adaptive immunity by enhancing cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) recognition and activity against tumor-associated or tumor-specific antigens (TAA and TSAs).

Vaccines have been developed that prevent infection by some carcinogenic viruses.[40] Human papillomavirus vaccine (Gardasil and Cervarix) decreases the risk of developing cervical cancer.[40] The hepatitis B vaccine prevents infection with hepatitis B virus and thus decreases the risk of liver cancer.[40] The administration of human papillomavirus and hepatitis B vaccinations is recommended when resources allow.[41]

Some cancer vaccines are usually immunoglobulin-based and target antigens specific to cancer or abnormal human cells.[2] [42] These vaccines may be given to treat cancer during the progression of disease to boost the immune system's ability to recognize and attack cancer antigens as foreign entities. Antibodies for cancer cell vaccines may be taken from the patient's own body (autologous vaccine) or from another patient (allogeneic vaccine).[40] Several autologous vaccines, such as Oncophage for kidney cancer and Vitespen for a variety of cancers, have either been released or are undergoing clinical trial. FDA-approved vaccines, such as Sipuleucel-T for metastasizing prostate cancer or Nivolumab for melanoma and lung cancer can act either by targeting over-expressed or mutated proteins or by temporarily inhibiting immune checkpoints to boost immune activity.[2] [43]

Screening

[edit ]
Main article: Cancer screening

Screening procedures, commonly sought for more prevalent cancers, such as colon, breast, and cervical, have greatly improved in the past few decades from advances in biomarker identification and detection.[2] Early detection of pancreatic cancer biomarkers was accomplished using a SERS-based immunoassay approach.[44] A SERS-based multiplex protein biomarker detection platform in a microfluidic chip can be used to detect several protein biomarkers to predict the type of disease and critical biomarkers and increase the chance of diagnosis between diseases with similar biomarkers (e.g. pancreatic cancer, ovarian cancer, and pancreatitis).[45]

To improve the chances of detecting cancer early, all eligible people should take advantage of cancer screening services. However, overall uptake of cancer screening among the general population is not widespread, especially among disadvantaged groups (e.g. those with low income, mental illnesses, or are from different ethnic groups) who face different barriers that lead to lower attendance rates.[46]

Cervical cancer

[edit ]

Cervical cancer is usually screened through in vitro examination of the cells of the cervix (e.g. Pap smear), colposcopy, or direct inspection of the cervix (after application of dilute acetic acid), or testing for HPV, the oncogenic virus that is the necessary cause of cervical cancer.[40] Screening is recommended for women over 21 years, initially women between 21 and 29 years old are encouraged to receive Pap smear screens every three years, and those over 29 every five years.[2] For women older than the age of 65 and with no history of cervical cancer or abnormality, and with an appropriate precedence of negative Pap test results may cease regular screening.[47]

Still, adherence to recommended screening plans depends on age and may be linked to "educational level, culture, psychosocial issues, and marital status," further emphasizing the importance of addressing these challenges in regards to cancer screening.[2]

Colorectal cancer

[edit ]

Colorectal cancer is most often screened with the fecal occult blood test (FOBT). Variants of this test include guaiac-based FOBT (gFOBT), the fecal immunochemical test (FIT), and stool DNA testing (sDNA).[48] Further testing includes flexible sigmoidoscopy (FS), total colonoscopy (TC), or computed tomography (CT) scans if a total colonoscopy is non-ideal. A recommended age at which to begin screening is 50 years. However, this is highly dependent on medical history and exposure to risk factors for colorectal cancer. Effective screening has been shown to reduce the incidence of colorectal cancer by 33% and colorectal cancer mortality by 43%.[2]

Breast cancer

[edit ]

The estimated number of new breast cancer cases in the US in 2018 is predicted to be more than 1.7 million, with more than six hundred thousand deaths.[49] Factors such as breast size, reduced physical activity, obesity and overweight status, infertility and never having had children, hormone replacement therapy (HRT), and genetics are risk factors for breast cancer.[2] Mammograms are widely used to screen for breast cancer, and are recommended for women 50–74 years of age by the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF). However, the USPSTF does not recommend mammograms for women 40–49 years old due to the possibility of overdiagnosis.[2] [50]

Preventable causes of cancer

[edit ]

As of 2017, tobacco use, diet and nutrition, physical activity, obesity/overweight status, infectious agents, and chemical and physical carcinogens have been reported to be the leading areas where cancer prevention can be practiced through enacting positive lifestyle changes, getting appropriate regular screening, and getting vaccinated.[51]

The development of many common cancers are incited by such risk factors. For example, consumption of tobacco and alcohol, a medical history of genital warts and STDs, immunosuppression, unprotected sex, and early age of first sexual intercourse and pregnancy all may serve as risk factors for cervical cancer. Obesity, red meat or processed meat consumption, tobacco and alcohol, and a medical history of inflammatory bowel diseases are all risk factors for colorectal cancer (CRC). On the other hand, exercise and consumption of vegetables may help decrease the risk of CRC.[2]

Several preventable causes of cancer were highlighted in Doll and Peto's landmark 1981 study,[5] estimating that 75 – 80% of cancers in the United States could be prevented by avoidance of 11 different factors. A 2013 review of more recent cancer prevention literature by Schottenfeld et al.,[52] summarizing studies reported between 2000 and 2010, points to most of the same avoidable factors identified by Doll and Peto. However, Schottenfeld et al. considered fewer factors (e.g. non inclusion of diet) in their review than Doll and Peto, and indicated that avoidance of these fewer factors would result in prevention of 60% of cancer deaths. The table below indicates the proportions of cancer deaths attributed to different factors, summarizing the observations of Doll and Peto, Shottenfeld et al. and several other authors, and shows the influence of major lifestyle factors on the prevention of cancer, such as tobacco, an unhealthy diet, obesity and infections.

Proportions of cancer deaths in the United States attributed to different factors
Factor Doll &
Peto[5] [needs update ]		 Schottenfeld
et al.[52] 		Other reports
Tobacco 30% 30% 38% men, 23% women,[53] 30%,[54] 25-30%
Unhealthy diet 35% - 32%,[55] 10%,[56] 30-35%
Obesity * 10% 14% women, 20% men, among non-smokers,[57] 10-20%, 19-20% United States, 16-18% Great Britain, 13% Brazil, 11-12% China [58]
Infection† 10% 5-8% 7-10%,[59] 8% developed nations, 26% developing nations,[54] 10% high income, 25% African
Alcohol 3% 3-4% 3.6%,[54] 8% USA, 20% France[60]
Occupational exposures 4% 3-5% 2-10%, may be 15-20% in men[61]
Radiation (solar and ionizing) 3% 3-4% up to 10%
Physical inactivity * <5% 7%[62]
Reproductive and sexual behavior 1-13% - -
Pollution 2%[needs update ] - -
Medicines and medical procedures 1% - -
Industrial products <1%[needs update ] - -
Food additives <1%[needs update ] - -

*Included in diet

†Carcinogenic infections include: for the uterine cervix (human papillomavirus [HPV]), liver (hepatitis B virus [HBV] and hepatitis C virus [HCV]), stomach (Helicobacter pylori [H pylori]), lymphoid tissues (Epstein-Barr virus [EBV]), nasopharynx (EBV), urinary bladder (Schistosoma hematobium ), and biliary tract (Opisthorchis viverrini, Clonorchis sinensis )

History of cancer prevention

[edit ]

Cancer has been thought to be a preventable disease since the time of Roman physician Galen, who observed that an unhealthy diet was correlated with cancer incidence. In 1713, Italian physician Ramazzini hypothesized that abstinence caused lower rates of cervical cancer in nuns. Further observation in the 18th century led to the discovery that certain chemicals, such as tobacco, soot and tar (leading to scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps, as reported by Percivall Pott in 1775), could serve as carcinogens for humans. Although Pott suggested preventive measures for chimney sweeps (wearing clothes to prevent contact bodily contact with soot), his suggestions were only put into practice in Holland, resulting in decreasing rates of scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps. Later, the 19th century brought on the onset of the classification of chemical carcinogens.[63]

In the early 20th century, physical and biological carcinogens, such as X-ray radiation or the Rous Sarcoma Virus discovered 1911, were identified. Despite observed correlation of environmental or chemical factors with cancer development, there was a deficit of formal prevention research and lifestyle changes for cancer prevention were not feasible during this time.[63]

In Europe, in 1987 the European Commission launched the European Code Against Cancer to help educate the public about actions they can take to reduce their risk of getting cancer.[64] The first version of the code covered 10 recommendations covering tobacco, alcohol, diet, weight, sun exposure, exposure to known carcinogens, early detection and participation in organized breast and cervical cancer screening programs.[65] In the early 1990s, the European School of Oncology led a review of the code and added details about the scientific evidence behind each of the recommendations.[65] Later updates were coordinated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The fourth edition of the code, [1], developed in 2012‒2013, also includes recommendations on participation in vaccination programs for hepatitis B (infants) and human papillomavirus (girls), breast feeding and hormone replacement therapy, and participation in organized colorectal cancer screening programs.

See also

[edit ]

References

[edit ]
  1. ^ "Cancer prevention: 7 steps to reduce your risk". Mayo Clinic. September 27, 2008. Retrieved January 30, 2010.[unreliable medical source? ]
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Valle I, Tramalloni D, Bragazzi NL (June 2015). "Cancer prevention: state of the art and future prospects". Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene. 56 (1): E21 – E27. PMC 4718348 . PMID 26789828.
  3. ^ "Cancer Prevention & Early Detection Facts & Figures 2017-18" (PDF). Cancer.org. April 1, 2017.
  4. ^ Danaei G, Vander Hoorn S, Lopez AD, Murray CJ, Ezzati M (November 2005). "Causes of cancer in the world: comparative risk assessment of nine behavioural and environmental risk factors". Lancet. 366 (9499): 1784–1793. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67725-2 . PMID 16298215. S2CID 17354479.
  5. ^ a b c Doll R, Peto R (June 1981). "The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 66 (6): 1191–1308. doi:10.1093/jnci/66.6.1192. PMID 7017215.
  6. ^ "CRISPR Gene-Editing Tool May Help Improve Cancer Immunotherapy". National Cancer Institute. March 20, 2017. Retrieved March 9, 2018.
  7. ^ "WHO Disease and injury country estimates". World Health Organization. 2009. Retrieved November 11, 2009.
  8. ^ "Cancer Prevention". February 12, 2014. Archived from the original on June 17, 2018. Retrieved November 7, 2014.
  9. ^ Surh YJ (October 2003). "Cancer chemoprevention with dietary phytochemicals". Nature Reviews. Cancer. 3 (10): 768–780. doi:10.1038/nrc1189. PMID 14570043.
  10. ^ Zheng W, Lee SA (2009). "Well-done meat intake, heterocyclic amine exposure, and cancer risk". Nutrition and Cancer. 61 (4): 437–446. doi:10.1080/01635580802710741. PMC 2769029 . PMID 19838915.
  11. ^ Ferguson LR (February 2010). "Meat and cancer". Meat Science. 84 (2): 308–313. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2009年06月03日2. PMID 20374790.
  12. ^ Buja A, Pierbon M, Lago L, Grotto G, Baldo V (July 2020). "Breast Cancer Primary Prevention and Diet: An Umbrella Review". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (13): 4731. doi:10.3390/ijerph17134731 . PMC 7369836 . PMID 32630215.
  13. ^ a b Kushi LH, Doyle C, McCullough M, Rock CL, Demark-Wahnefried W, Bandera EV, et al. (2012). "American Cancer Society Guidelines on nutrition and physical activity for cancer prevention: reducing the risk of cancer with healthy food choices and physical activity". CA. 62 (1): 30–67. doi:10.3322/caac.20140 . PMID 22237782.
  14. ^ a b Wicki A, Hagmann J (September 2011). "Diet and cancer". Swiss Medical Weekly. 141: w13250. doi:10.4414/smw.2011.13250 . PMID 21904992.
  15. ^ a b "Eat wholegrains, vegetables, fruit and beans". World Cancer Research Fund International. 2023. Retrieved September 2, 2024.
  16. ^ Larsson SC, Wolk A (May 2007). "Coffee consumption and risk of liver cancer: a meta-analysis". Gastroenterology. 132 (5): 1740–1745. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2007年03月04日4 . PMID 17484871.
  17. ^ Cappellani A, Di Vita M, Zanghi A, Cavallaro A, Piccolo G, Veroux M, et al. (January 2012). "Diet, obesity and breast cancer: an update". Frontiers in Bioscience. 4 (1): 90–108. doi:10.2741/253. PMID 22202045.
  18. ^ Key TJ (January 2011). "Fruit and vegetables and cancer risk". British Journal of Cancer. 104 (1): 6–11. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6606032. PMC 3039795 . PMID 21119663.
  19. ^ Wang X, Ouyang Y, Liu J, Zhu M, Zhao G, Bao W, et al. (July 2014). "Fruit and vegetable consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies". BMJ. 349: g4490. doi:10.1136/bmj.g4490. PMC 4115152 . PMID 25073782.
  20. ^ Moore SC, Lee IM, Weiderpass E, Campbell PT, Sampson JN, Kitahara CM, et al. (June 2016). "Association of Leisure-Time Physical Activity With Risk of 26 Types of Cancer in 1.44 Million Adults". JAMA Internal Medicine. 176 (6): 816–825. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.1548. PMC 5812009 . PMID 27183032.
  21. ^ Kruk J, Czerniak U (2013). "Physical activity and its relation to cancer risk: updating the evidence". Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 14 (7): 3993–4003. doi:10.7314/APJCP.2013147.3993 . PMID 23991944.
  22. ^ a b "Physical Activity and Cancer". US National Cancer Institute. February 10, 2020. Retrieved January 12, 2025.
  23. ^ Rock CL, Thomson C, Gansler T, Gapstur SM, McCullough ML, Patel AV, et al. (July 2020). "American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention". CA. 70 (4): 245–271. doi:10.3322/caac.21591 . PMID 32515498.
  24. ^ a b Friedenreich CM, Ryder-Burbidge C, McNeil J (March 2021). "Physical activity, obesity and sedentary behavior in cancer etiology: epidemiologic evidence and biologic mechanisms". Molecular Oncology. 15 (3): 790–800. doi:10.1002/1878-0261.12772. PMC 7931121 . PMID 32741068.
  25. ^ a b c Westerlind KC (November 2003). "Physical activity and cancer prevention--mechanisms". Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 35 (11): 1834–1840. doi:10.1249/01.MSS.0000093619.37805.B7. PMID 14600547.
  26. ^ Winzer BM, Whiteman DC, Reeves MM, Paratz JD (June 2011). "Physical activity and cancer prevention: a systematic review of clinical trials". Cancer Causes & Control. 22 (6): 811–826. doi:10.1007/s10552-011-9761-4. PMID 21461921. S2CID 8687281.
  27. ^ Rostom A, Dubé C, Lewin G, Tsertsvadze A, Barrowman N, Code C, et al. (March 2007). "Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors for primary prevention of colorectal cancer: a systematic review prepared for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force". Annals of Internal Medicine. 146 (5): 376–389. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-146-5-200703060-00010. PMID 17339623. S2CID 23290390.
  28. ^ Rothwell PM, Fowkes FG, Belch JF, Ogawa H, Warlow CP, Meade TW (January 2011). "Effect of daily aspirin on long-term risk of death due to cancer: analysis of individual patient data from randomised trials". Lancet. 377 (9759): 31–41. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62110-1. PMID 21144578. S2CID 22950940.
  29. ^ Cooper K, Squires H, Carroll C, Papaioannou D, Booth A, Logan RF, et al. (June 2010). "Chemoprevention of colorectal cancer: systematic review and economic evaluation". Health Technology Assessment. 14 (32): 1–206. doi:10.3310/hta14320 . PMID 20594533.
  30. ^ Thomsen A, Kolesar JM (December 2008). "Chemoprevention of breast cancer". American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 65 (23): 2221–2228. doi:10.2146/ajhp070663. PMID 19020189.
  31. ^ Wilt TJ, MacDonald R, Hagerty K, Schellhammer P, Kramer BS (April 2008). Wilt TJ (ed.). "Five-alpha-reductase Inhibitors for prostate cancer prevention". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2008 (2): CD007091. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007091. PMC 11270836 . PMID 18425978.
  32. ^ "Vitamins and minerals: not for cancer or cardiovascular prevention". Prescrire International. 19 (108): 182. August 2010. PMID 20939459.
  33. ^ Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Rimm EB, Hollis BW, Fuchs CS, Stampfer MJ, et al. (April 2006). "Prospective study of predictors of vitamin D status and cancer incidence and mortality in men". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 98 (7): 451–459. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.594.1654 . doi:10.1093/jnci/djj101. PMID 16595781.
  34. ^ "Vitamin D Has Role in Colon Cancer Prevention". Archived from the original on December 4, 2006. Retrieved July 27, 2007.
  35. ^ Schwartz GG, Blot WJ (April 2006). "Vitamin D status and cancer incidence and mortality: something new under the sun". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 98 (7): 428–430. doi:10.1093/jnci/djj127 . PMID 16595770.
  36. ^ Fritz H, Kennedy D, Fergusson D, Fernandes R, Doucette S, Cooley K, et al. (2011). Minna JD (ed.). "Vitamin A and retinoid derivatives for lung cancer: a systematic review and meta analysis". PLOS ONE. 6 (6): e21107. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...621107F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021107 . PMC 3124481 . PMID 21738614.
  37. ^ Cole BF, Baron JA, Sandler RS, Haile RW, Ahnen DJ, Bresalier RS, et al. (June 2007). "Folic acid for the prevention of colorectal adenomas: a randomized clinical trial". JAMA. 297 (21): 2351–2359. doi:10.1001/jama.297.21.2351. PMID 17551129.
  38. ^ Vinceti M, Filippini T, Del Giovane C, Dennert G, Zwahlen M, Brinkman M, et al. (January 2018). "Selenium for preventing cancer". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 1 (1): CD005195. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005195.pub4. PMC 6491296 . PMID 29376219.
  39. ^ "Cancer-Causing Substances in the Environment". NCI. National Cancer Institute of the United States. June 17, 2022. Retrieved June 4, 2024. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  40. ^ a b c d e "Cancer Vaccine Fact Sheet". NCI. June 8, 2006. Archived from the original on October 25, 2008. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
  41. ^ Lertkhachonsuk AA, Yip CH, Khuhaprema T, Chen DS, Plummer M, Jee SH, et al. (November 2013). "Cancer prevention in Asia: resource-stratified guidelines from the Asian Oncology Summit 2013". The Lancet. Oncology. 14 (12): e497 – e507. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70350-4. PMID 24176569.
  42. ^ "What's new in cancer immunotherapy research?". www.cancer.org. Retrieved March 9, 2018.
  43. ^ Pardoll DM (March 2012). "The blockade of immune checkpoints in cancer immunotherapy". Nature Reviews. Cancer. 12 (4): 252–264. doi:10.1038/nrc3239. PMC 4856023 . PMID 22437870.
  44. ^ Banaei N, Foley A, Houghton JM, Sun Y, Kim B (November 2017). "Multiplex detection of pancreatic cancer biomarkers using a SERS-based immunoassay". Nanotechnology. 28 (45): 455101. Bibcode:2017Nanot..28S5101B. doi:10.1088/1361-6528/aa8e8c. PMID 28937361. S2CID 206086640.
  45. ^ Banaei N, Moshfegh J, Mohseni-Kabir A, Houghton JM, Sun Y, Kim B (January 2019). "Machine learning algorithms enhance the specificity of cancer biomarker detection using SERS-based immunoassays in microfluidic chips". RSC Advances. 9 (4): 1859–1868. Bibcode:2019RSCAd...9.1859B. doi:10.1039/c8ra08930b . PMC 9059745 . PMID 35516124.
  46. ^ "Catching cancer early: how research could help us improve". NIHR Evidence (Plain English summary). November 10, 2021. doi:10.3310/collection_48071. S2CID 244006179.
  47. ^ "Ages 65 Years and Older: Exams and Screening Tests - ACOG". www.acog.org. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  48. ^ Janz T, Lu K, Povlow MR, Urso B (December 2016). "A Review of Colorectal Cancer Detection Modalities, Stool DNA, and Fecal Immunochemistry Testing in Adults Over the Age of 50". Cureus. 8 (12): e931. doi:10.7759/cureus.931 . PMC 5235652 . PMID 28097082.
  49. ^ "Cancer Facts & Figures 2018" (PDF).
  50. ^ "Final Update Summary: Breast Cancer: Screening - US Preventive Services Task Force". www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org. Archived from the original on March 10, 2018. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  51. ^ "Cancer Prevention & Early Detection Facts & Figures 2017-18" (PDF). Cancer.org. April 1, 2017.
  52. ^ a b Schottenfeld D, Beebe-Dimmer JL, Buffler PA, Omenn GS (2013). "Current perspective on the global and United States cancer burden attributable to lifestyle and environmental risk factors". Annual Review of Public Health. 34: 97–117. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114350. PMID 23514316.
  53. ^ Shopland DR (November 1995). "Tobacco use and its contribution to early cancer mortality with a special emphasis on cigarette smoking". Environmental Health Perspectives. 103 (Suppl 8): 131–142. Bibcode:1995EnvHP.103S.131S. doi:10.1289/ehp.95103s8131. PMC 1518977 . PMID 8741773.
  54. ^ a b c Parsa N (2012). "Environmental factors inducing human cancers". Iranian Journal of Public Health. 41 (11): 1–9. PMC 3521879 . PMID 23304670.
  55. ^ Willett WC (November 1995). "Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer". Environmental Health Perspectives. 103 (Suppl 8): 165–170. Bibcode:1995EnvHP.103S.165W. doi:10.1289/ehp.95103s8165. PMC 1518978 . PMID 8741778.
  56. ^ Trichopoulou A, Lagiou P, Kuper H, Trichopoulos D (September 2000). "Cancer and Mediterranean dietary traditions". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 9 (9): 869–873. PMID 11008902.
  57. ^ Song M, Giovannucci E (September 2016). "Estimating the Influence of Obesity on Cancer Risk: Stratification by Smoking Is Critical". Journal of Clinical Oncology. 34 (27): 3237–3239. doi:10.1200/JCO.2016676916. PMID 27458311.
  58. ^ "2.7.1 Body fatness and foods and drinks that promote weight gain". Policy and Action for Cancer Prevention. Food, Nutrition, and Physical Activity: a Global Perspective. Washington DC, USA: World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. 2009. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-9722522-4-9.
  59. ^ Schottenfeld D, Beebe-Dimmer J (2006). "Chronic inflammation: a common and important factor in the pathogenesis of neoplasia". CA. 56 (2): 69–83. doi:10.3322/canjclin.56.2.69 . PMID 16514135.
  60. ^ Tuyns AJ (July 1979). "Epidemiology of alcohol and cancer". Cancer Research. 39 (7 Pt 2): 2840–2843. PMID 445490.
  61. ^ Irigaray P, Newby JA, Clapp R, Hardell L, Howard V, Montagnier L, et al. (December 2007). "Lifestyle-related factors and environmental agents causing cancer: an overview". Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 61 (10): 640–658. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.200710006. PMID 18055160.
  62. ^ Moore SC, Lee IM, Weiderpass E, Campbell PT, Sampson JN, Kitahara CM, et al. (June 2016). "Association of Leisure-Time Physical Activity With Risk of 26 Types of Cancer in 1.44 Million Adults". JAMA Internal Medicine. 176 (6): 816–825. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.1548. PMC 5812009 . PMID 27183032.
  63. ^ a b Bode AM, Dong Z (July 2009). "Cancer prevention research - then and now". Nature Reviews. Cancer. 9 (7): 508–516. doi:10.1038/nrc2646. PMC 2838238 . PMID 19536108.
  64. ^ Unspecified (May 8, 1990). Europe against cancer programme: Report on the implementation of the first plan of action, 1987-1989 (PDF) (Report). Communication from the European Commission to the Council, the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee. COM (90) 185 final. Via Archive of European Integration (AEI)
  65. ^ a b Boyle P, Veronesi U, Tubiana M, Alexander FE, da Silva F, Denis LJ, et al. (September 1995). "European School of Oncology Advisory report to the European Commission for the "Europe Against Cancer Programme" European Code Against Cancer". European Journal of Cancer. 31A (9): 1395–1405. doi:10.1016/0959-8049(95)00334-F. PMID 7577062.
[edit ]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cancer prevention .
Overview of tumors, cancer and oncology
Conditions
Benign tumors
Malignant progression
Topography
Histology
Other
Staging/grading
Carcinogenesis
Misc.

AltStyle によって変換されたページ (->オリジナル) /