Orders of magnitude (radiation)
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Radiation Dosages
[edit ]Recognized effects of higher acute radiation doses are described in more detail in the article on radiation poisoning. Although the International System of Units (SI) defines the sievert (Sv) as the unit of radiation dose equivalent, chronic radiation levels and standards are still often given in units of millirems (mrem), where 1 mrem equals 1/1,000 of a rem and 1 rem equals 0.01 Sv. Light radiation sickness begins at about 50–100 rad (0.5–1 gray (Gy), 0.5–1 Sv, 50–100 rem, 50,000–100,000 mrem).
The following table includes some dosages for comparison purposes, using millisieverts (mSv) (one thousandth of a sievert). The concept of radiation hormesis is relevant to this table – radiation hormesis is a hypothesis stating that the effects of a given acute dose may differ from the effects of an equal fractionated dose. Thus 100 mSv is considered twice in the table below – once as received over a 5-year period, and once as an acute dose, received over a short period of time, with differing predicted effects. The table describes doses and their official limits, rather than effects.
Absorbed Dosages (D)
[edit ]Total Absorbed Dosages
[edit ]Dosage Level | Description |
---|---|
250 mGy | Lowest dose to cause clinically observable blood changes |
260 mGy | Peak natural background dose after one year in Ramsar, Iran [1] |
2 Gy | Local dose for onset of erythema in humans |
48.5 Gy (4.85 krad) | Roughly calculated from the estimated 4,500 + 350 rad dose for fatality of Russian experimenter on June 17, 1997, at Sarov.[2] |
100 Gy (10 krad) | Estimated fatality at the United Nuclear Fuels Recovery Plant on July 24, 1964.[2] |
2 kGy | One second of the estimated dose applied to the inner wall in ITER [3] |
10 kGy (1 Mrad) | Typical tolerance of radiation-hardened microchips |
10 MGy (1 Grad) | The maximum radiation dosage of the most hardened electronics.[4] |
Effective Dosages (E)
[edit ]Level (mSv) | Level in standard form (mSv) | Duration | Hourly equivalent (μSv/hour) | Description |
---|---|---|---|---|
0.001 | 1×ばつ10 |
Hourly | 1 | Cosmic ray dose rate on commercial flights varies from 1 to 10 μSv/hour, depending on altitude, position and solar sunspot phase.[5] |
0.01 | 1×ばつ10 |
Daily | 0.4 | Natural background radiation, including radon[6] |
0.06 | 6×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Chest X-ray (AP+Lat)[7] |
0.07 | 7×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Transatlantic airplane flight.[1] |
0.09 | 9×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Dental X-ray (Panoramic)[7] |
0.1 | 1×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.011 | Average USA dose from consumer products[8] |
0.15 | 1.5×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.017 | USA EPA cleanup standard [citation needed ] |
0.25 | 2.5×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.028 | USA NRC cleanup standard for individual sites/sources [citation needed ] |
0.27 | 2.7×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.031 | Yearly dose from natural cosmic radiation at sea level (0.5 in Denver due to altitude)[8] |
0.28 | 2.8×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.032 | USA yearly dose from natural terrestrial radiation (0.16-0.63 depending on soil composition)[8] |
0.46 | 4.6×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Estimated largest off-site dose possible from March 28, 1979 Three Mile Island accident [citation needed ] |
0.48 | 4.8×ばつ10 |
Day | 20 | USA NRC public area exposure limit[citation needed ] |
0.66 | 6.6×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.075 | Average USA dose from human-made sources[6] |
0.7 | 7×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Mammogram[7] |
1 | 1×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.11 | Limit of dose from man-made sources to a member of the public who is not a radiation worker in the US and Canada[6] [9] |
1.1 | 1.1×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.13 | Average USA radiation worker occupational dose in 1980[6] |
1.2 | 1.2×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Abdominal X-ray[7] |
2 | 2×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.23 | USA average medical and natural background [2] Human internal radiation due to radon, varies with radon levels[8] |
2 | 2×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Head CT [7] |
3 | 3×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.34 | USA average dose from all natural sources[6] |
3.66 | 3.66×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.42 | USA average from all sources, including medical diagnostic radiation doses[citation needed ] |
4 | 4×ばつ10 |
Duration of the pregnancy | 0.6 | Canada CNSC maximum occupational dose to a pregnant woman who is a designated Nuclear Energy Worker.[9] |
5 | 5×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.57 | USA NRC occupational limit for minors (10% of adult limit) USA NRC limit for visitors[10] |
5 | 5×ばつ10 |
Pregnancy | 0.77 | USA NRC occupational limit for pregnant women[citation needed ] |
6.4 | 6.4×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.73 | High Background Radiation Area (HBRA) of Yangjiang, China [11] |
7.6 | 7.6×ばつ10 |
Annual | 0.87 | Fountainhead Rock Place, Santa Fe, NM natural[citation needed ] |
8 | 8×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Chest CT [7] |
10 | 1×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Lower dose level for public calculated from the 1 to 5 rem range for which USA EPA guidelines mandate emergency action when resulting from a nuclear accident[6] Abdominal CT [7] |
14 | 1.4×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | 18F FDG PET scan,[12] Whole Body |
50 | 5×ばつ10 |
Annual | 5.7 | USA NRC/ Canada CNSC occupational limit for designated Nuclear Energy Workers[9] (10 CFR 20) |
100 | 1×ばつ10 |
5 years | 2.3 | Canada CNSC occupational limit over a 5-year dosimetry period for designated Nuclear Energy Workers[9] |
100 | 1×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | USA EPA acute dose level estimated to increase cancer risk 0.8%[6] |
120 | 1.2×ばつ10 |
30 years | 0.46 | Exposure, long duration, Ural Mountains, lower limit, lower cancer mortality rate[13] |
150 | 1.5×ばつ10 |
Annual | 17 | USA NRC occupational eye lens exposure limit [citation needed ][clarification needed ] |
170 | 1.7×ばつ10 |
Acute | Average dose for 187,000 Chernobyl recovery operation workers in 1986[14] [15] | |
175 | 1.75×ばつ10 |
Annual | 20 | Guarapari, Brazil natural radiation sources[citation needed ] |
250 | 2.5×ばつ10 |
2 hours | 125,000 | (125 mSv/hour) Whole body dose exclusion zone criteria for US nuclear reactor siting[16] (converted from 25 rem) |
250 | 2.5×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | USA EPA voluntary maximum dose for emergency non-life-saving work[6] |
400-900 | 4–9×ばつ10 |
Annual | 46-103 | Unshielded in interplanetary space.[17] |
500 | 5×ばつ10 |
Annual | 57 | USA NRC occupational whole skin, limb skin, or single organ exposure limit |
500 | 5×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Canada CNSC occupational limit for designated Nuclear Energy Workers carrying out urgent and necessary work during an emergency.[9] Low-level radiation sickness due to short-term exposure[18] |
750 | 7.5×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | USA EPA voluntary maximum dose for emergency life-saving work[6] |
1,000 | 10×ばつ10 |
Hourly | 1,000,000 | Level reported during Fukushima I nuclear accidents, in immediate vicinity of reactor[19] |
3,000 | 3×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Thyroid dose (due to iodine absorption) exclusion zone criteria for US nuclear reactor siting[16] (converted from 300 rem) |
4,800 | 4.8×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | LD50 (actually LD50/60) in humans from radiation poisoning with medical treatment estimated from 480 to 540 rem.[20] |
5,000 | 5×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Calculated from the estimated 510 rem dose fatally received by Harry Daghlian on August 21, 1945, at Los Alamos and lower estimate for fatality of Russian specialist on April 5, 1968, at Chelyabinsk-70.[2] |
5,000 | 5×ばつ10 |
5,000 - 10,000 mSv. Most commercial electronics can survive this radiation level.[21] | ||
16,000 | 1.6×ばつ10 |
Acute | Highest estimated dose to Chernobyl emergency worker diagnosed with acute radiation syndrome[15] | |
20,000 | 2×ばつ10 |
Acute | 2,114,536 | Interplanetary exposure to solar particle event (SPE) of October 1989.[22] [23] |
21,000 | 2.1×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Calculated from the estimated 2,100 rem dose fatally received by Louis Slotin on May 21, 1946, at Los Alamos and lower estimate for fatality of Russian specialist on April 5, 1968 Chelyabinsk-70.[2] |
48,500 | 4.85×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Roughly calculated from the estimated 4,500 + 350 rad dose for fatality of Russian experimenter on June 17, 1997, at Sarov.[2] |
60,000 | 6×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Roughly calculated from the estimated 6,000 rem doses for several Russian fatalities from 1958 onwards, such as on May 26, 1971, at the Kurchatov Institute. Lower estimate for fatality of Cecil Kelley at Los Alamos on December 30, 1958.[2] |
100,000 | 1×ばつ10 |
Acute | - | Roughly calculated from the estimated 10,000 rad dose for fatality at the United Nuclear Fuels Recovery Plant on July 24, 1964.[2] |
30,000,000 | 3×ばつ10 |
3,600,000 | Radiation tolerated by Thermococcus gammatolerans , a microbe extremely resistant to radiation.[24] | |
70,000,000,000 | 7×ばつ10 |
Hourly | 70,000,000,000,000 | Estimated dose rate for the inner wall in ITER (2 kGy/s with an approximate weighting factor of 10)[3] |
See also
[edit ]External links
[edit ]- unh.edu: The Carrington event: Possible doses to crews in space from a comparable event, received in 2004 and concludes an interplanetary dose for a Carrington event at 34 - 45 Gy depending on type of flare spectrum and using a 1 gram/cm2 aluminium shield (3.7 mm thick). Dose can be decreased down to 3 Gy through the use of a 10 gram/cm2 aluminium shield (3.7 cm thick).
References
[edit ]- ^ Dissanayake C (May 2005). "Of Stones and Health: Medical Geology in Sri Lanka". Science. 309 (5736): 883–5. doi:10.1126/science.1115174. PMID 16081722.
high as 260 mGy/year
- ^ a b c d e f g "A Review of Criticality Accidents" (PDF). Los Alamos National Laboratory. May 2000. pp. 16, 33, 74, 75, 87, 88, 89. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021年06月15日. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ a b Henri Weisen: ITER Diagnostics, page 13. Accessed August 28, 2017
- ^ "RD53 investigation of CMOS radiation hardness up to 1Grad" (PDF). Retrieved April 3, 2015.
- ^ "Annex B: Exposures from natural radiation sources" (PDF). UNSCEAR 2000 Report: Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. Vol. 1 Sources. p. 88, Figure 3.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Oak Ridge National Laboratory (http://www.ornl.gov/sci/env_rpt/aser95/tb-a-2.pdf Archived 2010年11月22日 at the Wayback Machine)
- ^ a b c d e f g Health Physics Society (http://www.hps.org/documents/meddiagimaging.pdf)
- ^ a b c d Oak Ridge National Laboratory (http://www.ornl.gov/sci/env_rpt/aser95/appa.htm Archived 2004年06月23日 at the Wayback Machine)
- ^ a b c d e Radiation Protection Regulations, Canada
- ^ "Annex B: Exposures from natural radiation sources" (PDF). UNSCEAR 2000 Report: Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. Vol. 1 Sources.
Orvieto town, Italy
- ^ Tao Z, Cha Y, Sun Q (July 1999). "[Cancer mortality in high background radiation area of Yangjiang, China, 1979–1995]". Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi (in Chinese). 79 (7): 487–92. PMID 11715418.
- ^ "Radiation Exposure from Medical Exams and Procedures" (PDF). Health Physics Society. Retrieved 2015年04月19日.
- ^ "Pollycove 2000 Symposium on Medical Benenfits of LDR". Archived from the original on 2004年08月18日. Retrieved 2010年09月09日.
- ^ UNSCEAR 2000 Report, Annex J, Exposures and effects of the Chernobyl Accident (PDF). United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. 2000. p. 526.
- ^ a b "Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact. Chapter IV Dose estimates". OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. 2002.
- ^ a b 10 CFR Part 100.11 Section 1
- ^ R.A. Mewaldt; et al. (2005年08月03日). "The Cosmic Ray Radiation Dose in Interplanetary Space – Present Day and Worst-Case Evaluations" (PDF). 29th International Cosmic Ray Conference Pune (2005) 00, 101-104. p. 103. Retrieved 2008年03月08日.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (https://emergency.cdc.gov/radiation/ars.asp)
- ^ "Japan's Chernobyl". Spiegel. 2011年03月14日. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
- ^ ieee.org - Radiation Hardening 101: How To Protect Nuclear Reactor Electronics
- ^ Lisa C. Simonsen & John E. Nealy (February 1993). "Mars Surface Radiation Exposure for Solar Maximum Conditions and 1989 Solar Proton Events" (PDF) (published 2005年06月10日). p. 9. Retrieved 2016年04月09日.
- ^ Torsti, J.; Anttila, A.; Vainio, R. l Kocharov (1995年08月28日). "Successive Solar Energetic Particle Events in the October 1989". International Cosmic Ray Conference. 4 (published 2016年02月17日): 140. Bibcode:1995ICRC....4..139T.
- ^ Jolivet, Edmond; L'Haridon, Stéphane; Corre, Erwan; Forterre, Patrick; Prieur, DanielYR 2003 (2003). "Thermococcus gammatolerans sp. nov., a hyperthermophilic archaeon from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent that resists ionizing radiation". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 53 (3): 847–851. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.02503-0 . ISSN 1466-5034. PMID 12807211.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Kerr, Richard (31 May 2013). "Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier". Science . 340 (6136): 1031. Bibcode:2013Sci...340.1031K. doi:10.1126/science.340.6136.1031. PMID 23723213 . Retrieved 31 May 2013.
- ^ Zeitlin, C.; et al. (31 May 2013). "Measurements of Energetic Particle Radiation in Transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory". Science . 340 (6136): 1080–1084. Bibcode:2013Sci...340.1080Z. doi:10.1126/science.1235989. PMID 23723233. S2CID 604569 . Retrieved 31 May 2013.
- ^ Chang, Kenneth (30 May 2013). "Data Point to Radiation Risk for Travelers to Mars". New York Times. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
- ^ Gelling, Cristy (June 29, 2013). "Mars trip would deliver big radiation dose; Curiosity instrument confirms expectation of major exposures". Science News . 183 (13): 8. doi:10.1002/scin.5591831304 . Retrieved July 8, 2013.