Skepticism

Skepticism (Scepticism in the United Kingdom) is an epistemology that suspends judgement about certain kinds of beliefs through a method or attitude characterized by systematic doubt about claims usually taken for granted. Traditionally in the branch of philosophy called epistemology Justified True Beliefs are what constitute knowledge. Skepticism questions knowledge in other words with some skeptics going so far as to question even foundational beliefs like the human sensory system. Questioning and thus opposing the very important empirical character and underpinnings of science.^[1] Skepticism doubts antecedent stoppers to infinite regress like the sensory system, but also the outcome of such filters. Doubting then not only foundational beliefs or what are also called basic beliefs, that do not require epistemic justification as they are traditionally viewed as self-evident, but also reasons that constitute Justified True Belief in some proposition. Some schools of skepticism go so far as to never assent beyond the point of doubt, and therefore never assert anything.^[1]

History

Ancient

Ancient skepticism was considered a way of life, technically more established as such under the Pyrrhonist position but it can be said for the Academics as well. The most notable defenders of ancient skepticism were Arcesilaus of Pitane (315 to 241 BC), Carneades of Cyrene (214 to 129 BC) and Pyrrho of Elis (360 to 270 BC). What is known about Arcesilaus by way of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 to 43 BC) and Pyrrhonism (a school of skepticism named after Pyrrho of Elis) by way of Sextus Empiricus' (160 to 210 AD) in the Outlines of Pyrrhonism contain very important and influential texts. They symbolize milestones within Greco-Roman philosophy more generally and of ancient skepticism more specifically, actually informing the philosophy of skepticism understood in more modern times.

Pyrrhonian skepticism

Sextus Empiricus wrote about Pyrrhonism within what is called the Origins of Pyrrhonism. The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism characterizes ancient Pyrrhonism in this way;

Academic skepticism

A classic philosophical problem within ancient skepticism is the problem of claiming not to assent to anything, yet by making claims around that type of idea the ancient philosophers had to assent to that. To apply skepticism was to be skeptical of skepticism, and so on, actually creating its own self-refutation. Researchers of ancient skepticism, like Michael Frede, try to present an alternative conception model for belief to explain the self-refutation. This position is in opposition to what can be called the standard conception of belief. The standard conception of belief does not see a difference between belief in a proposition and belief that the same proposition is true. The alternative model put forth by Frede is less obvious to the normal person. The need for different conceptions of belief that lack a self-refuting nature are highlighted within the history of Arcesilaus, founder of Academic skepticism. Cicero has characterized Arcesilaus in such ways that the modern skeptic has to put forth alternative conceptions of belief to escape the contradiction inherent in the application of ancient skeptic thought. There has to be good reasons for an alternative conception of belief, yet this is what seems lacking by not only ancient philosophers but contemporary prominent figures attempting to defend skepticism today like Michael Frede or Michael Shermer.^[5]

Modern

While in today's world skepticism is epistemological, seen to do more damage than good, much less so was this view taken during the time of ancient skepticism.

There are still some skeptics in the contemporary setting like Michael Shermer even though the environment for pure skepticism is generally hostile. Michael Shermer is a prominent skeptic and Editor in Chief of the magazine Skeptic. Shermer's skepticism however tacitly recognizes the self-refutation problem of ancient skepticism by formulating his skepticism in light of empiricism and rationalism. Shermer, according to Answers in Genesis, tries to qualify a scientific (empirical) and rational (reasons and logic) basis of his skepticism, attempting to eschew from self-refutation. On one level, the epistemological level, Shermer appeals to ways of knowing being a skeptic of only religious claims. Shermer is then not a philosophical skeptic, in the ancient sense suspending judgement by never making truth claims, but rather he adopts a worldview of atheistic materialism and so is only a religious skeptic. In this regard Shermer can shed the charge of epistemic self-refutation by actually allowing himself to make truth claims with science and logic. Yet on another level, an ontological level that does not deal with knowledge and truth but being and existence and what exists in reality, there lies another contradiction left unanswered by Michael Shermer according to AiG.

Types of Skepticism

Iterative

Social Skepticism

Main Article: Postmodernism

Postmodernism or postmodernity includes poststructuralism within its intellectual landscape of the 20th and 21st centuries. Postmodernism is the move away from modernism of art and architecture, philosophy and truth, and general cultural account and critique. It requires especially the rejection of global cultural narratives, meta-narratives, universal theories, or what are also called grand theories like religious fundamentalism.^[9]

References

External Links

• Philosophical schools