16.Unified: Thermodynamics and Propulsion
Prof. Z. S. Spakovszky

L^ATEX editing by D. Quattrochi
Notes by E. M. Greitzer, Z. S. Spakovszky, I. A. Waitz

• • • Origins
    • Acknowledgement from 16.05 Notes
    • A note on bracketed references
    • A note on the version
  
  
• Contents
• List of Figures
• List of Tables
• I THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
  • 1. Introduction to Thermodynamics
    • 1.1 What it's All About
    • 1.2 Definitions and Fundamental Ideas of Thermodynamics
      • 1.2.1 The Continuum Model
      • 1.2.2 The Concept of a ``System''
      • 1.2.3 The Concept of a ``State''
      • 1.2.4 The Concept of ``Equilibrium''
      • 1.2.5 The Concept of a ``Process''
      • 1.2.6 Quasi-Equilibrium Processes
      • 1.2.7 Equations of state
    • 1.3 Changing the State of a System with Heat and Work
      • 1.3.1 Heat
      • 1.3.2 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
      • 1.3.3 Work
      • 1.3.4 Work vs. Heat - which is which?
    • 1.4 Muddiest Points on Chapter 1
  • 2. The First Law of Thermodynamics
    • 2.1 First Law of Thermodynamics
    • 2.2 Corollaries of the First Law
    • 2.3 Example Applications of the First Law; enthalpy
      • 2.3.1 Adiabatic, steady, throttling of a gas
      • 2.3.2 Quasi-Static Expansion of a Gas
      • 2.3.3 Transient filling of a tank
      • 2.3.4 The First Law in Terms of Enthalpy
    • 2.4 Specific Heats
      • 2.4.1 Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas
      • 2.4.2 Reversible adiabatic processes for an ideal gas
    • 2.5 Control volume form of the conservation laws
      • 2.5.1 Conservation of mass
      • 2.5.2 Conservation of energy
      • 2.5.3 Stagnation Temperature and Stagnation Enthalpy
      • 2.5.4 Example Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics
    • 2.6 Muddiest Points on Chapter 2
  • 3. The First Law Applied to Engineering Cycles
    • 3.1 Some Properties of Engineering Cycles; Work and Efficiency
    • 3.2 Generalized Representation of Thermodynamic Cycles
    • 3.3 The Carnot Cycle
    • 3.4 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
    • 3.5 The Internal combustion engine (Otto Cycle)
      • 3.5.1 Efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle
      • 3.5.2 Engine work, rate of work per unit enthalpy flux
    • 3.6 Diesel Cycle
    • 3.7 Brayton Cycle
      • 3.7.1 Work and Efficiency
      • 3.7.2 Gas Turbine Technology and Thermodynamics
      • 3.7.3 Brayton Cycle for Jet Propulsion: the Ideal Ramjet
      • 3.7.4 MIT Cogenerator
    • 3.8 Muddiest points on Chapter 3
  
  
• II THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
  • 4. Background to the Second Law of Thermodynamics
    • 4.1 Reversibility and Irreversibility in Natural Processes
    • 4.2 Difference between Free and Isothermal Expansions
    • 4.3 Features of reversible processes
    • 4.4 Muddiest Points on Chapter 4
  • 5. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
    • 5.1 Concept and Statements of the Second Law
    • 5.2 Axiomatic Statements of the Laws of Thermodynamics
      • 5.2.1 Introduction
      • 5.2.2 Zeroth Law
      • 5.2.3 First Law
      • 5.2.4 Second Law
      • 5.2.5 Reversible Processes
    • 5.3 Combined First and Second Law Expressions
    • 5.4 Entropy Changes in an Ideal Gas
    • 5.5 Calculation of Entropy Change in Some Basic Processes
    • 5.6 Muddiest Points on Chapter 5
  • 6. Applications of the Second Law
    • 6.1 Limitations on the Work that Can be Supplied by a Heat Engine
    • 6.2 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
    • 6.3 Representation of Thermodynamic Processes in $ T\textrm {-}s$ coordinates
    • 6.4 Brayton Cycle in $ T$ -$ s$ Coordinates
      • 6.4.1 Net work per unit mass flow in a Brayton cycle
    • 6.5 Irreversibility, Entropy Changes, and ``Lost Work''
    • 6.6 Entropy and Unavailable Energy
    • 6.7 Examples of Lost Work in Engineering Processes
    • 6.8 Some Overall Comments on Entropy
      • 6.8.1 Entropy
      • 6.8.2 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
      • 6.8.3 Examples of Reversible and Irreversible Processes
    • 6.9 Muddiest Points on Chapter 6
  • 7. Entropy on the Microscopic Scale
    • 7.1 Entropy Change in Mixing of Two Ideal Gases
    • 7.2 Microscopic and Macroscopic Descriptions of a System
    • 7.3 A Statistical Definition of Entropy
    • 7.4 The Statistical Definition of Entropy and Randomness
    • 7.5 Numerical Example: the Equilibrium Distribution
    • 7.6 Summary and Conclusions
  • 8. Power Cycles with Two-Phase Media
    • 8.1 Behavior of Two-Phase Systems
    • 8.2 Work and Heat Transfer with Two-Phase Media
    • 8.3 The Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase Power Cycle
      • 8.3.1 Example: Carnot steam cycle
    • 8.4 The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
    • 8.5 Rankine Power Cycles
    • 8.6 Enhancements of Rankine Cycles
    • 8.7 Combined Cycles for Power Production
    • 8.8 Some Overall Comments on Thermodynamic Cycles
    • 8.9 Muddiest Points on Chapter 8
  
  
• III PROPULSION
  • 9. Introduction to Propulsion
    • 9.1 Goal: Create a Force to Propel a Vehicle
    • 9.2 Performance parameters
    • 9.3 Propulsion is a systems endeavor
  • 10. Integral Momentum Theorem
    • 10.1 An Expression of Newton's 2^nd Law
    • 10.2 Application of the Integral Momentum Equation to Rockets
    • 10.3 Application of the Momentum Equation to an Aircraft Engine
  • 11. Aircraft Engine Performance
    • 11.1 Overall Efficiency
    • 11.2 Thermal and Propulsive Efficiency
    • 11.3 Implications of propulsive efficiency for engine design
    • 11.4 Other expressions for efficiency - $ I_{sp}$ and SFC
    • 11.5 Trends in thermal and propulsive efficiency
    • 11.6 Performance of Jet Engines
      • 11.6.1 Notation and station numbering
      • 11.6.2 Ideal Assumptions
      • 11.6.3 Ideal Ramjet
      • 11.6.4 Turbojet Engine
      • 11.6.5 Effect of Departures from Ideal Behavior
    • 11.7 Performance of Propellers
      • 11.7.1 Overview of propeller performance
      • 11.7.2 Application of the Integral Momentum Theorem to Propellers
      • 11.7.3 Actuator Disk Theory
      • 11.7.4 Dimensional Analysis
    • 11.8 Muddiest points on Chapter 11
  • 12. Energy Exchange with Moving Blades
    • 12.1 Introduction
    • 12.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum
    • 12.3 The Euler Turbine Equation
    • 12.4 Multistage Axial Compressors
    • 12.5 Velocity Triangles for an Axial Compressor Stage
    • 12.6 Velocity Triangles for an Axial Flow Turbine Stage
  • 13. Aircraft Performance
    • 13.1 Vehicle Drag
    • 13.2 Power Required
    • 13.3 Aircraft Range: the Breguet Range Equation
      • 13.3.1 Relation of overall efficiency, $ I_{sp}$ , and thermal efficiency
      • 13.3.2 The Propulsion Energy Conversion Chain
    • 13.4 Aircraft Endurance
    • 13.5 Climbing Flight
  • 14. Rocket Performance
    • 14.1 Thrust and Specific Impulse for Rockets
    • 14.2 The Rocket Equation
    • 14.3 Rocket Nozzles: Connection of Flow to Geometry
      • 14.3.1 Quasi-one-dimensional compressible flow in a variable area duct
      • 14.3.2 Thrust in terms of nozzle geometry
  
  
• IV HEAT GENERATION AND TRANSFER
  • 15. Generating Heat: Thermochemistry
    • 15.1 Fuels
    • 15.2 Fuel-Air Ratio
    • 15.3 Enthalpy of formation
    • 15.4 First Law Analysis of Reacting Systems
    • 15.5 Adiabatic Flame Temperature
      • 15.5.1 Approximate solution using ``average'' values of specific heat
      • 15.5.2 Solution for adiabatic flame temperature using evolutions of specific heats with temperature
      • 15.5.3 Solution for adiabatic flame temperature using tabulated values for gas enthalpy
    • 15.6 Muddiest points on Chapter 15
    • Additional References
  • 16. Conductive Heat Transfer
    • 16.1 Heat Transfer Modes
    • 16.2 Introduction to Conduction
    • 16.3 Steady-State One-Dimensional Conduction
      • 16.3.1 Example: Heat transfer through a plane slab
    • 16.4 Thermal Resistance Circuits
    • 16.5 Quasi-One-Dimensional Heat Flow
      • 16.5.1 Cylindrical Shell
      • 16.5.2 Spherical Shell
    • 16.6 Muddiest Points on Chapter 16
  • 17. Convective Heat Transfer
    • 17.1 The Reynolds Analogy
    • 17.2 Combined Conduction and Convection
    • 17.3 Dimensionless Numbers and Analysis of Results
    • 17.4 Muddiest Points on Chapter 17
  • 18. Generalized Conduction and Convection
    • 18.1 Temperature Distributions in the Presence of Heat Sources
    • 18.2 Heat Transfer From a Fin
    • 18.3 Transient Heat Transfer (Convective Cooling or Heating)
    • 18.4 Modeling Complex Physical Processes
    • 18.5 Heat Exchangers
      • 18.5.1 Simplified Counterflow Heat Exchanger (With Uniform Wall Temperature)
      • 18.5.2 General Counterflow Heat Exchanger
      • 18.5.3 Efficiency of a Counterflow Heat Exchanger
    • 18.6 Muddiest Points on Chapter 18
  • 19. Radiation Heat Transfer
    • 19.1 Ideal Radiators
    • 19.2 Kirchhoff's Law and ``Real Bodies''
    • 19.3 Radiation Heat Transfer Between Planar Surfaces
      • 19.3.1 Example 1: Use of a thermos bottle to reduce heat transfer
      • 19.3.2 Example 2: Temperature measurement error due to radiation heat transfer
    • 19.4 Radiation Heat Transfer Between Arbitrary Surfaces
      • 19.4.1 Example: Concentric cylinders or concentric spheres
    • 19.5 Muddiest Points on Chapter 19
  
  
• Index
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