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There are a lot of different types of backpacking stoves to choose from. Nothing effects stove design more than the type of fuel it made for. As these fuels differ in several different aspects, each varies greatly price, availability, toxicity, convenience of use, storage requirements, etc.
Since there are a lot of similarities between fuels within a fuel class, backpackers may be able to use a lot of different fuels that may be available to them, depending on where they are in the world. For information on international names fuels check out Mike Buckler's and MSR's list of international fuel names.
The following lists many of the common fuels available to international backpackers. Some are ideal for stove use, while others are far less suited for peak performance and may even be hazardous as noted. Since all stoves are inherently dangerous to use, even when used as designed, one should consider the possible risks of using a fuel not designed for their stove prior to experimenting. The following should only serve as a guide - in other words: use at your own risk.
Petroleum Fuels
Great heat to weight ratio. Caustic fuel. Generally burns hot and is unhindered by cold temperatures. See Petrol Stove Fuels for more information.
FYI - These fuels can't be safely used in an alcohol stove (it's already been tried).
Liquefied Gas (Butane, Isobutane, Propane)
Liquefied gas boils/vaporizes at above freezing temperatures and makes stove operation simple and generally has the best heat to weight output. Unfortunately, their boiling point ranges limit backpacking stove use in the subfreezing temperatures. These tend to be expensive fuels that come packaged in a disposable metal canister. See Canister Stove Fuels for more fuel information.
Alcohol
These are very clean burning fuels that don't create a major health concern or hazard if spilled. They have about half the heat potential per ounce of most petrol fuels and the weight of alcohol fuel will quickly add up if you are cooking many large meals or going on long trips without resupply. See Alcohol Fuel Options for more information.
Chemical Solid Fuels (Esbit, Hexamine, Triox)
These are simple and safe fuels to use and have low toxicity compared to petroleum fuels. They burn slow and don't need a special stove to operate. Often, these are only available through mail order or specialty shops, so can be hard to find if you plan to "shop as you go" thruhiking. There are several solid fuels other than hexamine and trioxane that can be used to heat meals, but many carry along extra hazards such as severe toxicity and explosive potential (e.g. plastic explosive). See Solid Fuels for more information.
Wood
Wood varies in burnability, toxicity and availability. It also provides a special ambiance to being in the outdoors. See Wood Stove Fuels for more information.
Paraffin and other Candle Waxes and Oils (not to be confused with Kerosene) Not recommended
Some waxes are worse for your lungs than others and they can vary a small amount in regards to burn time and heat output. This is generally a slow fuel to cook with and can be very sooty. Paraffin and other waxes and oils have a lot of heat potential per gram, but it is difficult to make a practical lightweight stove system with them. See the Candle Stove Fuels for more information.
Sun
The sun has a lot of heat potential, it is a giant nuclear explosion, and some of that heat can be directly used for cooking by concentrating and trapping it. Solar radiation levels differ depending on where you are and when you are there.
Water activated fuels
These do work, but can be hard to find. They are simple and safe to use, if you are using foods packaged for their use. Compared to all other stove fuels, these are heavy to start with, and produce a lot of waste that needs to be carried out.
There are several metals similar to magnesium that release larges amounts of heat when exposed to water. These metals must be protected from moisture for obvious reasons and shouldn't be handled with bare hands.
Calcium Carbide
This can be hard to find and you'll have to fabricate your own stove if you want to cook with it. This fuel must be kept dry to avoid converting it to acetylene gas and/or turning your pack into a fireball. You'll also need to pack out the byproducts of combustion, which can be quite caustic and heavy. Waste products (CaO and Ca(OH)2 ) will total between 87.5 and 115.6% (not including any water weight) of the start weight of your calcium carbide.
Make sure that when you purchase your calcium carbide, it is gray in color and hasn't turned into white dust.
The following data is intended to provide general figures for various fuels. Many of these figures are debatable, but the range of differences are insignificant for backpacking stove performance purposes. For information on international names fuels check out Mike Buckler's and MSR's list of international fuel names.
Fuel
Mol Structure
BP ーC
VP 25ーC kPa
kcal/gram
Btu/pound
CHRIS
MSDS
Petrol Liquids:
Pressurized Gas:
Alcohols:
Solid fuels:
Waxes and natural oils:
Wood/Biomass/EcoFuels:
Wet Wood
C51%H6%O42%N1%
n/a
n/a
2.22*
4000*
Dry Wood
C51%H6%O42%N1%
n/a
n/a
3.89*
7,000*
Dung (varies)
Animal Poop
n/a
n/a
3.6*
6,500*
Solar Fusion:
Sun
H92.1% He7.8%
15x106
n/a
9x1013
2x1017
Flameless:
Calcium Carbide:
CaC2 ョ C2H2 ョ Heat
C2H2 = 40.6% mass CaC2
n/a
4.7
8,427
Most information derived from the Chemical Hazards Response Information System (CHRIS) or respective MSDS.
* derived from educated speculation or other sources
1 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 77th ed
2 North American Combustion Handbook, 2nd ed., North American Mfg. Co., Cleveland, OH
Commercial petrol stoves are designed to work with certain fuels. If you have a multi fuel stove, you may need to modify airflow and/or adjust/replace jets in order to optimize use of various fuels. Larger vaporizer (generator) tubes may also be desirable for heavier and less volatile fuels.
International Names
For information on international names and idiosyncrasies of petrol fuels check out Mike Buckler's and MSR's list of international fuel names.
Petrol Refining
The heart to petroleum refining is the fractional distillation process. Raw petroleum is heated up, and separated into different distillation ranges via a pipestill.
Fraction
Carbon Chains
Boiling Point Range ーC
Major Uses
Gaseous hydrocarbons
C1 - C4
0-20
Gas fuels for cooking and heating. Methane is used for producing hydrogen for manufacture of ammonia
Naphtha
C5 - C7
20-100
Solvents for varnishes, dry cleaning and cracking stock for methane
Gasoline
C5 - C12
40-175
Fuels for internal combustion engines
Kerosene
C12 - C18
175-300
Jet engine fuel and diesel fuel #1
Diesel Fuel or Gas-Oil
C18 - C24
300-400
Diesel fuel #2 and cracking stock for gasoline
Lubricating Oil
C20 - C30
Non volatile fraction
Lubricants and cracking stock
Paraffin Wax
C25 - C30
solids
Candles, packaging, polishing, petroleum jelly, and water proofing
Residue Bitumen
Greater than C30
solids
Asphalt and road surfaces, waterproofing
These distillates are further refined to produce fuels, solvents, and other products that meet specific criteria. These criteria vary depending on manufacturer, destination country, retailer, and targeted use, making it difficult to accurately define attributes such as composition, toxicity, heat output, and performance between various fuels.
Fuels
The following considers a handful of usable fuel categories for petrol camp stoves and is neither all inclusive nor technically complete. The following is given as a brief guideline for backpacking stove use, and nothing more.
NOTE - All petrol fuels are toxic and all are dangerous. Those not listed are possibly even more so dangerous and toxic. Even when well designed petrol stoves and accessories are used in a "safe" manner, they are not risk free. Using fuels in a manner outside of manufacture's recommendations and/or contradictory to common sense can prove deadly.
Naphtha (aka. Coleman Fuel, MSR Fuel, White Gas [North America, Australia, and New Zealand], Shellite, Fuelite, Zippo fuel, Ronsonol fuel, heptane, Blazo, cigarette lighter fluid, some charcoal lighter fluid)
Naphtha is a term relating to a range of hydrocarbons used as solvents or feedstock for petroleum products. For purposes of categorizing fuels for stoves, "naphtha" is used to include all naphtha and gasoline-like fuels that have been refined to be as aromatic and additive free as practical for stove use. This is a much "cleaner" stove fuel than other petroleum products (except possibly the liquefied gases) so it is less likely to clog stoves. It is also considered by many to be the best fuel for high altitude and extremely cold treks. It evaporates quickly, is quite volatile, burns very hot, and leaves little residue compared to kerosene. Naphtha requires a lot of oxygen to burn and therefore may be a little easier to extinguish than other petroleum fuels. Naphtha is much more explosive than kerosene but is a bit less explosive than gasoline. This fuel category might be slightly less toxic than gasoline but is still very caustic, and releases an unpleasant odor that lingers.
Naphtha is a mix of 5 to 9 carbon alkanes with a boiling range of 104 to 401ーF (40 to 205ーC). The term "naphtha" has several accepted and obsolete definitions and can even be inclusive of gasoline and kerosene.
Coleman Fuel (Calumet Lantern Fuel )
Coleman fuel contains about 50% naphtha, 50% aliphatic petroleum distillates, 2% xylene, 2% toluene, 0.5% benzene, green dye and rust inhibitors (to help prevent rusting of internal parts and facilitate long shelf life). The carbon number range is C5 to C9 with a boiling point range of 100-350ー F. Coleman Fuel contains up to 25% n-hexane and up to 15% cyclohexane by weight and it is fully hydrotreated to remove aromatics, (reported to contain less than 0.001% benzene).
Fuelite (Shellite)
Contains >60% Paraffins and naphthenes, N-hexane 13%, <5.0% Aromatic hydrocarbons (3.5% Toluene, 1% Ethylbenzene, <0.5% Benzene, 1% C8 and higher aromatics) and other stuff
White Gas
This is an old term referring to overpriced unleaded gas marketed as lamp and stove fuel back when leaded gas was referred to as Red Gas. True white gas is gasoline without additives, is more volatile than true naphtha and not as safe to use. Some white gas (not made for stove use) even has tetraethyllead added to it.
"Artic Fuel"
There are several companies that sell highly refined and filtered naphtha for use in subfreezing environments. These may be more expensive than other camp fuels but should be less likely to clog stoves or cause other problems than other petrol fuels. Since a functioning petrol stove may be necessary to keep an expedition or trekker alive in artic or high altitude conditions, this fuel may be preferred over other options when the added expense of this fuel outweighs the increased risk of problems if using other fuels.
Environmental gasoline (lawnmower fuel, special bensine, alkylate petrol, Alkylatbensin, Milj?bensin)
This should be "free" from aromatic hydrocarbons and olefins such as benzene and many of the toxic additives in regular unleaded gasoline for your auto.
Unleaded Gasoline (aka petrol, automotive gas, unleaded, benzine) (Not Recommended)
This burns very hot, is extremely explosive, is very caustic, releases a terrible odor that lingers, and its additives and high octane components release deadly vapors when burned. It may also prematurely clog your stove when compared to white gas. Avoid if possible and go with the lowest octane available if this is your only choice. The greater the octane the greater the amount of octane-enhancing/antiknock additives.
Additive packages include: octane-enhancing additives (methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl [MMT] in some countries, methyl t-butyl ether [MTBE] in US, etc), anti-oxidants (inhibit gum formation, improve stability), metal deactivators ( inhibit gum formation, improve stability) , deposit modifiers (reduce deposits, spark-plug fouling and preignition), surfactants ( limit icing, improve vaporization, inhibit deposits, reduce NOx emissions), freezing point depressants (decrease icing), corrosion inhibitors (limit corroding of storage tanks), dyes (product color for safety or regulatory purposes).
Gasoline contains over 500 alkanes, cycloalkanes and other hydrocarbons with 3 to 12 carbons (including Benzene, Butane, Cyclohexane, Ethylbenzene, Heptane, Hexane, Pentane, Toluene, Trimethylbenzene, Xylene) and has a boiling range from 86 to 428ーF (30 to 220ーC)
Oxygenates
Gasoline uses oxygenates to increase octane and decrease carbon monoxide emissions. What additives are used depends on what part of the world you in and even differs from State to State in the US. Oxygenates include ethanol, MTBE (illegal in many States), tertiary-amyl methyl ether (TAME) and/or ethyl tertiary-butyl ether (ETBE) These additives are often toxic and don't help in stove performance.
Typical Properties of Oxygenates
Ethanol
MTBE
ETBE
TAME
Chemical formula
CH3CH2OH
CH3OC(CH3)3
CH3CH2OC(CH3)3
(CH)3CCH2OCH3
Oxygen content, percent by weight
34.73
18.15
15.66
15.66
Octane, (R+M)/2
115
110
111
105
Blending vapor pressure, RVP
18
8
4
1.5
Source: National Petroleum Council, U.S. Petroleum Refining: Meeting Requirements for Cleaner Fuels and Refineries (Washington, DC, August 1993) Appendix L.
Winter Oxygenate Gasoline
In some places, gasoline is oxygenated to reduce carbon monoxide emissions in the winter. Oxygenated gasoline decrease carbon monoxide emissions (particularly older vehicles) by burning leaner in autos engines. According to Chevron, MTBE is used primarily in California and for the East-of-the-Mississippi Reformulated Gasoline (RFG) areas, while ethanol is used in Anchorage, Seattle, Spokane, Vancouver, Portland, Southern Oregon, Salt Lake City, Reno, Las Vegas, Phoenix, Tucson, Albuquerque, and El Paso.
City
Oxy Season
Counties
Albuquerque
Nov 1 - Feb 29
Bernalillo
Anchorage
Nov 1 - Mar 1
Anchorage Borough
El Paso
Oct 1 - Mar 31
El Paso
Las Vegas
Oct 1 - Feb 29
Clark
Phoenix
Oct 1 - Mar 31
Maricopa
Portland
Nov 1 - Feb 29
Clackamas, Multnomah, and Washington
Reno
Oct 1 - Jan 31
Washoe
Salt Lake City
Nov 1 - Feb 29
Utah (Provo)
Seattle
Nov 1 - Feb 29
King, Pierce, and Snohomish
Southern Oregon
Nov 1 - Feb 29
Josephine (Grants Pass), Klamath (Klamath Falls), and Jackson (Medford)
Spokane
Sep 1 - Feb 29
Spokane
Tucson
Oct 1 - Mar 31
Pima
Vancouver
Nov 1 - Feb 29
Clark
According to REI:
"NOTE: Never use oxygenated gasoline in your backpacking stove. Sold in many parts of the U.S. in the winter months, its additives can destroy rubber stove parts and seals."
Reformulated Gasoline
The reformulated gasoline (RFG) program requires reductions in automobile emissions of ozone-forming volatile organic compounds during the summer high-ozone season, and of toxic air pollutants and nitrogen oxides during the entire year in certain areas of the United States. Reformulated gasoline requires a minimum 2.1% oxygen by weight when averaging, which corresponds to approximately 11.7 volume percent MTBE or 5.8 volume percent ethanol. While the sale of Federal reformulated gasoline was mandated for only nine areas in the nation with the most severe ozone pollution, other areas are allowed to voluntarily join the Federal RFG program.
Emissions/Eco Friendly Gasoline
These products are become more popular in heavily polluted areas. Brands such as Blue Planet Earth Friendly Gasoline have lower levels of sulfur, benzene, other volatile organic compounds, toxins, and are MTBE free. These may be the better choice of gasoline for stove use as it should be less likely to clog your stove or cause health problems than regular gasolines.
Leaded Gasoline (Aviation Gasoline, AvGas) (Not Recommended)
If this is the only fuel you can find, consider eating cold meals. In addition to many of the health concerns that come with unleaded gasoline, these fuels also contain tetraethyllead Pb(C2H5)4 (TEL) which is not only bad for your health but may quickly clog your jets.
Fuel Grade (Octane Rating)
Color
TEL per Gallon
80/87
Red
0.5mL
100LL (low lead)
Blue
1.2 - 2.0mL
100/130
Green
3.0 - 4.0mL
115/145
Purple
4.6mL
Kerosene (aka. paraffin, some charcoal lighter fluid, K-1, high grade diesel fuel, DERV, kerosine, coal oil, Range Oil, kero, Klean-Heat, Deobase)
This is almost as hot as naphtha once it gets burning and can be easier to find than naphtha.. It may prematurely clog your jets, has a very strong odor, leaves an oil residue on everything it comes in contact with and may flavor your food if you don't use a tight lid on your cookware. This fuel is extremely difficult to extinguish and like gasoline, the fumes have an explosive potential (though not nearly as great), and should be stored in a metal container protected from direct sunlight. Kerosene may take longer to prime and requires a separate priming agent if you don't want a lot of soot on and in your stove, jets and pot. You may need to run a narrower jet than used with naphtha for optimal performance.
narrow cut kerosene (Jet A1, K1) is a mix of 10 to 18 carbon alkanes with about 20% aromatics and distils between 350 to518ーF (175 to 270ーC)
wide cut kerosene (Jet B, JP-4) is cut down to also include some of the gasoline/naphtha range and distils between 212 to 482ーF (100 to 250ーC)
diesel (#2, Fuel Oil No. 2, Heating Oil No. 2) is a mix of 9 to 20 carbon alkanes and distils between 482 to 716ーF (250 to 380ーC)
K-1 (low sulfur kerosene) (may have red dye)
This is a low-sulfur kerosene approved for use in nonflue-connected (ventless) kerosene burner appliances and for use in wick-fed illuminating lamps, space heaters, etc. This is the best kerosene choice for stoves. K1 is often referred to as Kero, but Jet A (with toxic additives) is also sometimes sold as Kero.
Odorless Kerosene (Klean-Heat, Deobase, odorless mineral spirits)
This is kerosene that has been "sweetened" with most of its mercaptans (sulfur compound) and aromatics removed. It supposedly burns cleaner, odorless, with less smoke and soot. It may also have a narrower molecule range (C9-C12), higher flashpoint than K-1 (125ーF or greater vs. ~100ーF) and a much higher price.
K-2 (regular kerosene)
Has a higher sulfur content than K1.
#1 Fuel/Heating/Gas/Burner Oil. (may have red dye) (Not Recommended)
This fuel has high sulfur levels. This fuel is designed for use in conventional pressure and air atomizing domestic oil burner systems such as in domestic and small industrial space heaters and burners. Number 1 Fuel Oil is particularly adapted to vaporizing type burners or where storage conditions require low pour point fuel.
Charcoal lighter fluid
Some of these are a mix of kerosene and naphtha and some are just straight naphtha.
Jet Fuels (Not Recommended)
These fuels are used for powering jet and turbo-prop aircraft. They are are different cuts of kerosene with some additives to improve engine and fuel performance. These include Tetraethyllead (TEL, anti-nock/detonation), antioxidants (prevent formation of gum deposits and peroxide compounds), static dissipators (reduce the hazardous effects of static electricity), corrosion inhibitors, lubricants, icing inhibitors, metal de-activators (decrease copper oxidation ability), biocides and thermal stability improvers (prevent deposits in high temp areas).
JET A-1
Jet A1 is a kerosene type fuel with a flash point above 38ーC (100ーF) and a freeze point maximum of -47ーC. It is widely available outside the US.
JET A
Jet A is a similar kerosene type of fuel and is generally only available in the US. It has a higher freeze point maximum (-40ーC) than Jet A-1.
JET B
Jet B is a distillate covering the naphtha and kerosene fractions (wide cut kerosene). It is more flammable and explosive than Jet A and is used for very cold climates.
MILITARYJP-4
Jet B with the addition of corrosion inhibitors and anti-icing additives.
JP-5JP-5 is a high flash point kerosene making it less likely to explode if hit with small arms fire.
JP-8
Jet A-1 with the addition of corrosion inhibitors and anti-icing additives.
Diesel
Diesel fuel quality varies depending on the manufacture, what time of the year it is and what part of the world you find it. And depending on composition, it may smoke a lot and clog your stove much faster than with kerosene. How refined your fuel is and the amount of impurities in it will influence whether or not it will work in your stove. This fuel will generally only work well in specifically designed and jetted stoves such as the MSR XGK and Primus Omnifuel. You may need small jets, a large vaporizer tube, a separate priming agent and lots of maintenance to successfully burn diesel.
#1 Diesel Fuel (Kerosene-like, kerosene, Diesel 1-D)
The specifications for No. 1 diesel (minus additives for diesel engines) are so similar to kerosene that many manufactures make a dual purpose product that is sold as both kerosene and diesel #1. This fuel can be ultra low, low, or high sulfur. It has better solvent qualities than #2 and is used in lower temperatures or blended with #2 to improve performance in colder temperatures. Winter diesel blends can have anywhere from 10-50% #1 fuel added to #2.
#2 Diesel Fuel (Diesel 2-D, Home heating oil, No. 2 Gas/Burner oil)
This fuel can be ultra low, low, or high sulfur and is composed of much larger hydrocarbon molecules than diesel #1 (kerosene). This product is approved for use in domestic and small industrial burners.
Commercial Diesel
New low sulfur diesel doesn't lubricate as well as high sulfur diesel and many manufactures have added lubricants and other additives to prolong engine life. If you have a choice, you may want to avoid fuels with additives.
Premium Diesel Fuel (Not Recommended)
"Premium" is an unregulated term used by manufactures/distributors to describe higher quality diesel fuel qualities or fuels enhanced with additives. This may include enhanced cetane number, detergent for system cleanliness, heat content minimum, stability during storage and use, low temperature performance, lubricity, corrosion protection and water handling characteristics. Again, avoid if possible.
#4 Diesel (Marine Diesel, Diesel 4-D, Heavy residual fuel oil) (Not Recommended)
This fuel can be very crude and isn't suitable for vaporization/pressurized stoves. Marine diesel varies from country to country and it is possible to get high quality fuel intended for auto use in some ports.
Sulfur Content
Using fuels with less sulfur in automobiles is a recent big environmental theme aimed at decreasing sulfur emissions and problems such as acid rain. Avoiding high sulfur fuels isn't such a bad idea for stove use either, if you are concerned about your health. If you're not concerned about your health, high sulfur, non-highway use fuels may be cheaper to use and make you feel like a made as the sulfuric acid created by the fumes deepen your voice.
Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel Fuel CARB Diesel Fuel
This was designed to meet the special requirements of the California Air Resources Board Urban Bus Rule. It should contain a maximum of 15 ppm of sulfur.
Low Sulfur Diesel Fuel
Sulfur content is limited to "no greater than 0.05%w." Approved for use in on-road diesel engines.
High Sulfur Diesel Fuel (red dyed, agricultural diesel) (Not Recommended)
Sulfur content is limited to "no greater than 0.50%w." This product is for use in off-highway diesel engines. "Red Diesel" may be much cheaper than the taxed auto diesel in your country.
Lamp oil (aka paraffin, some mineral oils) (Not Recommended)
Lamp oils vary from brand to brand. Some are kerosene labeled as lamp oil while others are more refined, contain heavier (10-24) carbon alkanes and are free from aromatics and other undesirable petroleum products. These fuels are very similar to kerosene but burn cooler, requires more oxygen, are easier to extinguish, have slightly less explosive potential and generally contain fewer toxins. Depending on the makeup of the fuel and the stove you are using, it may not work well and may produce a lot of smoke and soot. It may also require a separate priming agent.
Other Solvents - should never be used!
There are many volatile and flammable solvents that will work in camp stoves. Unfortunately, they also tend to be extremely toxic and should never be used. There are better ways to die.
Biodiesel (veggie diesel, vegetable fuel) (Not Recommended)
A slow burning fuel similar to lamp oil. Releases a French Fry, peanut, fish and chips, etc smell when burned. Biodiesel fuel is one of the safest fuels around as it is relatively nontoxic and not very flammable. Depending on the makeup of the fuel and the stove you are using, it may not work well and produce a lot of smoke and soot. This fuel may only work well in specially designed stoves such as the MSR XGK and Primus Omnifuel. You may need small jets, a large vaporizer tube, a separate priming agent and lots of maintenance to successfully burn biodiesel.
Rapeseed oil (Canola oil, Colza oil) (Not Recommended)
With proper jets vaporization of fuel, you may be able to get good quality vegetable oil to burn in a stove.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Several commercial stoves are able to burn liquefied gas fuels such as butane, isobutane, propane, etc with the addition of an adapter. This fuel burns clean but may not work well at subfreezing temperatures and can be expensive and difficult to find. See Canister Stoves for more information.
Alcohol Fuels
Burns clean and cool. Poor heat to weight ratio. You may need to use a larger jet to burn this fuel optimally. See Alcohol Fuel Options for more information.
Liquefied Gas Canister F uel Types
Propane, Butane and Isobutane all have similar heat values and work more or less the same above freezing temperatures. These fuels will not work well bellow their respective boiling points since they won't be able to build up sufficient pressure for stove operation, so the differences in fuel performance by and large relates to fuel's boiling points. The lower the boiling point, the less likely it will fail in the cold.
Propane (LPG, Liquified Propane Gas)
Great hot burning fuel that works at low temperatures and at high altitudes. Due to high pressures of propane (close to five times that of butane at room temperature), propane canisters are made of thick heavy steel. Pure propane is not recommended for stoves designed to run mostly butane and/or isobutane without a pressure regulator.
Propane is generally used for heavy duty stoves, lanterns, heaters and torches.
Boiling point: -43ー F (-40ーC). Fuel will not vaporizes well below its boiling point.
Butane (n-butane)
Works well at high altitudes but burns poorly below 40ー F due to poor vaporization at low temperatures. Butane is commonly used in backpacking and portable stoves, lighters, small torches and as a propellant for aerosol cans.
Boiling point: 31ー F (0.5ーC). Fuel will not vaporizes well below its boiling point.
Isobutane
Isobutane is a structural isomer of butane with a lower boiling point. Manufactures claim that isobutane provides a steady flow without tapering off as the canister empties and is added to butane to increase its performance. Because of the greater vapor pressures of isobutane compared to butane, you may experience much greater flow that may blow itself out if turned up too high or possibly even damage a stove not designed for isobutane.
Boiling point: 11ー F (-12ーC). Fuel will not vaporizes well below its boiling point.
Fuel Mixes
Isobutane and/or propane are often added to butane to allow stoves and lanterns to operate at subfreezing temperatures. These fuel mixes don't affect the vaporization of butane and each fuel vaporizes separately. This is important because at temperatures below the boiling point of butane, the added fuels will vaporize and be used up first. If your canister isn't warmed by the burning of the more volatile fuels, these fuels will burn off first and leave you with just butane remaining.
Isobutane/Butane Blends
Basically, isobutane may allow you to operate your stove at subfreezing temperatures down to 11ー F (-12ーC), that is - until the isobutane runs out..
Propane mixes (20-40% Propane) (Butane/Propane, Butane/Isobutane/Propane, Isobutane/Propane, IsoPro, IsoPropane)
The higher the propane content the longer it will burn at lower temperatures. You may still end up with most of the butane and/or isobutane remaining in the canister if using a stove below 31ー F (0.5ーC) or 11ー F (-12ーC) respectively.
Isopropane
The term isopropane suggests that this is structural isomer of propane, but since propane is a three carbon hydrocarbon, a structural isomer doesn't exist. Isopropane is instead a commercial term used to describe isobutane/propane mixes (and sometimes butane/propane mixes). Manufactures claim this combo is great for low temperature use and improves fuel performance by decreasing the tapering off affect of butane alone.
Denatured Alcohol (ethanol with methanol (added as a denaturing agent), methyl ethyl ketone, acetone, water, and possibly other chemicals - aka methylated spirits, shellac thinner, marine stove fuel, liquid fondue fuel, chafing dish fuel)-
and
Found in marine shops and in the paint department of most hardware stores. Many brands of this solvent are specifically marketed for use as marine stove fuel and/or chafing fuel.
This form of fuel has anywhere from 1% to 80% methanol and other poisonous chemicals in it. Because of the great variability of contents in denatured alcohol, some brands burn better than others. One trick to test the suitability of a particular brand of denatured is to burn a small amount in a dish and reject it if there is any residue left after it has burned.
Lab grade ethanol may have benzene or other chemicals mixed in with it.
Grain Alcohol (aka pure ethanol, pure grain alcohol, PGA, grain neutral spirits, GNS, rectified spirit, rectified alcohol, medical grade ethanol, ethyl anhydrous, moonshine) -
Everclear Grain Alcohol and Golden Grain alcohol from the David Sherman Corporation come in 95% (190 proof) bottles. This fuel works well but is an expensive option and may be illegal or difficult to purchase in many places. It is also non-toxic and can double for medicinal uses.
Grain alcohol can also be made at home in large quantities, though perhaps not legally in your area without special permits or permission (See TTB Forms).
Pure ethanol (aka absolute alcohol or dehydrated alcohol) can also be purchased from chemical supply distributors and as medical grade ethyl alcohol for a very high price. Since production of alcohol greater than 95.4% requires a special dehydration process that includes benzene or glycerine, these fuels can be very toxic.
Methyl Alcohol (aka methanol, wood alcohol, methyl hydrate, liquid fondue fuel, camp stove fuel, gas line antifreeze) -
Found in some hardware store paint departments as paint thinner or at gas stations and general stores as gas-line antifreeze such as HEET brand (Yellow is Methanol, Red is Isopropyl).
You may also be able to purchase this for around US3ドル per gallon at race shops that sell it as race fuel.
The vaporization pressures of methanol are much higher than ethanol throughout the applicable temperature ranges and the jets in your stove might light up faster when using this fuel. This is also a very poisonous fuel and you should consider the health concerns of this fuel if you decide to use it long term (thru-hikers beware and others may want to avoid storing contaminated stoves in their cook pots or bowls).
Isopropyl Alcohol (Isopropanol, 2-Propanol, rubbing alcohol) Not recommended -
Found in drug, food and general stores (HEET in red container). Rubbing alcohol is generally only 70% alcohol and won't work in many stoves. Alcohol with 91% or greater alcohol content will work, but will leave a sooty residue on your pot and brown water in your stove.
The heat potential for this fuel is high, but it doesn't generally burn completely (yellow flame and unburned soot) and is generally mixed with water that isn't burned and hinders fuel efficiency.
If you want to use rubbing alcohol (cheapest easily available fuel on this list) for fuel, you may want to use an open flame stove instead of a jetted stove. If you decided to use a jetted stove, you may need to use larger jets in your stove (#57 drill, pushpin size, ~1.4mm or larger) and try to empty as much left over liquid from your stove as you can after each use (as this will further hinder future fire ups) for it to operate.
Gelled Alcohol (Sterno, Canned Heat, jelled alcohol) -
or
This is either methanol or ethanol trapped in a network of solid calcium acetate forming a gel. This gel is a little safer to use than liquid alcohol since there is less of a spill hazard. Unfortunately, most gelled alcohol stoves have small top openings and often don't get food hot enough to cook or bring water to a boil.
This fuel usually comes in a resealable can and may be the best choice for young and clumsy campers, since kicking it over is less likely to cause a significant fire hazard as would other liquid and gas stoves. Due to costs and limitations, it is not highly recommended for most long distance backpackers.
See Gelled Alcohol Stoves for more information.
Diethylene Glycol (DEG, 3-oxa-1,5-pentanediol, diglycol, ethylene diglycol, or dihydroxy diethyl ether) Not recommended -
Diethylene glycol is used in many brands of chafing fuels and must use a wick to burn. It is considered nonflammable by the US Department of Transportation, can be air transported and is therefore much more economical to transport and store. These transportation and storage classifications make it ideal for the retail market and it's safe to assume that any chafing fuel can with a wick uses diethylene glycol until proven otherwise.
This fuel is difficult to light and is extremely poisonous. It is in fact the deadly chemical implicated in the 1937 Elixir Sulfanilamide Incident that killed 107 and was the main motivation for hastening of the enactment of the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.
This fuel can be used but is not recommended for backpacking stove use due to its toxicity and nonflammable nature.
Beyond wood, many other biofuels may be burned. You can use agricultural waste, paper products, dried humanimal waste, coal, charcoal, manufactured fire logs, last year's fruitcake, etc.
Firewood Quality
Hard Woods
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Alder
Medium-Low
2506
Easy
Fair
Good
Moderate
Slight
Apple
High-Medium
4132
Difficult
Difficult
Excellent
Few
Excellent
Ash , Black
Medium
4132
Easy-Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Good-Excellent
Few
Slight
Ash, Green
High
3590
Easy-Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Good-Excellent
Few
Slight
Ash, White
High
3,689
Easy-Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Good-Excellent
Few
Slight
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Aspen, Bigtooth
Low
2439
Easy
Easy
Good
Few
Slight
Aspen, Quaking
Low
2373
Easy
Easy
Good
Few
Slight
Basswood
Low
2174
Easy
Easy
Poor
Few
Good
Beech
High
3757
Difficult
Difficult
Excellent
Few
Good
Beech, American
High
3793
Difficult
Difficult
Excellent
Few
Good
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Beech, Blue
High
3890
Difficult
Difficult
Excellent
Few
Good
Birch, White
Medium
3179
Easy
Easy
Good
Moderate
Slight
Birch, Sweet
Medium
4065
Easy
Easy
Good
Moderate
Slight
Birch, Gray
Medium
3179
Easy
Easy
Good
Moderate
Slight
Birch, Paper
Medium
3260
Easy
Easy
Good
Moderate
Slight
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Birch, Yellow
High-Medium
3723
Moderate
Easy
Good
Moderate
Slight
Birch, Black
High-Medium
3890
Moderate
Easy
Good
Moderate
Slight
Buckeye, Horsechestnut
Low
2235
Moderate
Poor
Few
Slight
Boxelder
Low
2797
Easy
Poor
Many
Slight
Butternut (white walnut)
Low
2440
Easy
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Catalpa
Low
2360
Difficult
Good
Few
Fair
Cherry, Black
Medium
2880
Easy
Difficult
Excellent
Few
Excellent
Cherry
Medium
3184
Easy
Difficult
Excellent
Few
Excellent
Chestnut
Low
2708
Easy
Many
Good
Coffeetree, Kentucky
High
3112
Moderate
Good
Few
Good
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Cottonwood
Low
2102
Easy
Easy
Good
Moderate
Slight
Dogwood
High
4331
Difficult
Good
Fair
Few
Elm, American
Medium
3116
Very Difficult
Fair
Good
Very Few
Fair
Elm, Rock
Medium
3860
Very Difficult
Fair
Good
Very Few
Fair
Elm, Siberian
Medium
3020
Very Difficult
Fair
Good
Very Few
Fair
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Elm, Slippery
Medium
3251
Very Difficult
Fair
Good
Very Few
Fair
Eucalyptus
Very High
4560
-Swamp yate
Difficult
Poor
Excellent
Few
Good
-Sugar gum
Difficult
Poor
Excellent
Few
Good
-Tasmanian blue gum
Fair
Fair
Good
Few
Good
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
-River red gum
Difficult
Poor
Excellent
Moderate
Good
-SA blue gum
Difficult
Poor
Excellent
Few
Good
Hackberry
High
3319
Easy
Good
Few
Slight
Hazel
High
Moderate
Moderate
Hawthorn
High
Moderate
Moderate
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Hickory, True
Very High
4,327
Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Excellent
Moderate
Excellent
Hickory, Mockernut
Very High
4332
Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Excellent
Moderate
Excellent
Hickory, Pignut
Very High
4332
Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Excellent
Moderate
Excellent
Hickory, Shagbark
Very High
4333
Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Excellent
Moderate
Excellent
Hickory, Shellbark
Very High
4195
Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Excellent
Moderate
Excellent
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Holly, American
3387
Difficult
Honeylocust
High
3832
Easy
Excellent
Few
Slight
Hophornbeam, Eastern
4266
Ironwood (Hornbeam)
Very High
4267
Very Difficult
Very Difficult
Excellent
Few
Laurel, California
3456
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Locust, Black
Very High
4470
Very Difficult
Difficult
Excellent
Very Few
Slight
Madrone
High
3925
Difficult
Difficult
Excellent
Very Few
Slight
Maple, Bigleaf
High-Medium
2980
Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Excellent
Few
Excellent
Maple, Silver
High-Medium
2981
Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Excellent
Few
Fair
Maple, Black
High-Medium
3523
Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Excellent
Few
Excellent
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Maple, Soft
High-Medium
2924
Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Excellent
Few
Excellent
Maple, Red
High-Medium
3318
Moderate
Fair-Difficult
Excellent
Few
Excellent
Maple, Sugar
High
3793
Moderate
Difficult
Excellent
Few
Excellent
Mesquite
Very High
Very Difficult
Very Difficult
Excellent
Few
Mulberry
Medium
3712
Easy
Excellent
Good
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Oak, Bur
High
3928
Easy
Difficult
Excellent
Few
Fair
Oak, Red
High
3680
Moderate
Difficult
Excellent
Few
Fair
Oak, White
Very High
4200
Moderate
Difficult
Excellent
Few
Excellent
Osage Orange
High
4728
Moderate
Excellent
Many
Excellent
Pecan
High
Moderate
Good
Few
Good
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Persimmon
4332
Moderate
Pine, Lodgepole
Low
2610
Easy
Easy
Fair
Moderate
Good
Poplar, Yellow (Tuliptree)
Low
2708
Easy
Easy
Fair
Moderate
Bitter
Sweet Gum
Medium
3115
Difficult
Fair
Fair
Few
Sycamore
Medium
3115
Difficult
Very Difficult
Good
Few
Good
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Walnut
High-Medium
3454
Moderate
Fair
Good
Few
Fair
Willow
Low
2438
Easy
Fair
Poor
Moderate
Slight
Soft Woods
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Cedar, White
Medium-Low
2100
Easy
Easy
Poor
Moderate
Excellent
Cedar, Eastern
Medium-Low
2981
Easy
Easy
Poor
Many
Excellent
Cedar, W. Red
Medium-Low
2100
Easy
Easy
Poor
Many
Excellent
Cypress
Medium
2844
Easy
Moderate
Few
Fir, Douglas
Medium
3049
Easy
Easy
Fair
Moderate
Slight
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Fir, Balsam
Low
2236
Easy
Easy
Fair
Moderate
Slight
Fir, Grand
Low
2371
Easy
Easy
Fair
Moderate
Slight
Fir, White
Low
2104
Easy
Easy
Fair
Moderate
Slight
Hemlock, Eastern
Medium-Low
2573
Easy
Easy
Poor
Many
Good
Hemlock, Western
Medium-Low
2847
Easy
Easy
Poor
Many
Good
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Juniper
Medium
3150
Medium
Poor
Many
Excellent
Larch, Western (Tamarack)
High-Medium
3318
Easy-Moderate
Easy-Fair
Fair
Many
Slight
Pine, Lodgepole
Low
2576
Easy
Easy
Fair
Moderate
Good
Pine, Ponderosa
Medium-Low
2573
Easy
Easy
Fair
Moderate
Good
Pine, E&W White
Medium-Low
2303
Easy
Easy
Fair
Moderate
Good
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Pine, Sugar
Low
2302
Easy
Easy
Fair
Moderate
Good
Pine, Yellow
High-Medium
2610
Easy
Easy
Fair
Moderate
Good
Pinon
High
3000
Easy
Many
Redwood, Old Growth
Medium
2573
Easy
Easy-Fair
Poor
Many
Slight
Redwood, Second Growth
Medium
2302
Easy
Easy-Fair
Poor
Many
Slight
Species
Heat
Weight*
Ease Of Splitting
Ease Of Starting
Coaling Qualities
Sparks
Fragrance
Spruce, Black
Low
2575
Easy
Easy
Poor
Few
Slight
Spruce, Engeiman
Low
2234
Easy
Easy
Poor
Few
Slight
Spruce, Norway
Low
2240
Moderate
Easy
Poor
Many
Slight
Spruce, Sitka
Low
2506
Easy
Poor
Slight
Yew
High
Difficult
Difficult
Good
*Weight - pound /cord - seasoned wood.
Cord - stack 4' x 4' x 8' feet high (~85 ft3, air space removed)
Face cords - 4' x 8' x <4' (~16")
Esbit is a great simple fuel that has many benefits for ultralightweight hikers. It's simple to use, doesn't require a heavy stove and is very light. Unfortunately, there are some drawbacks. They coat the bottom of your pot and stove with brown goo, and although said to be nontoxic, the idea of getting it in your pack and pot is less than ideal. The burnt residue does come off easily with a little scrubbing and you can put your pot and stove in separate Ziploc bags to protect the contents of your pack. Esbit and other solid fuels also produce a noticeable odor, despite their manufacturers' claims of being odorless.
Esbit and other solid fuels
Hexamethylenetetramine: aka - Hexamine, Hexy, Hexi, Hexie, Methenamine (Esbit), Hexamethylenetetramine, 3,5,7- Tetraazaadamantane, Ammonioformaldehyde,
Aceto HMT, Aminoform, Ammoform, Cystamin, Cystogen, Esametilentetramina (Italian), Formamine, Formin, Hexaform, Hexamethylenamine, Urotropin, Hexamethyleneamine, Hexamethylenetetraamine, Hexamethylentetramin (German), Hexamethylentetramine, Hexilmethylenamine, HMT, Methamin, Resotropin, Uritone, Urotropine, Esametilentetramina (Italian), 1,3,5,7-Tetraazatricyclo[3.3.1.1(3,7)]decane and C6H12N4.NOTE: Hexamethylenetetramine releases formaldehyde, ammonia, carbon oxides, hydrogen cyanide and nitrogen oxides when burned. It is also used as a urinary tract infection antiseptic and in explosives.
Hexamine can be purchased from many different manufactures in various shapes and sizes. This fuel is generally advertised as a "safe, clean burning fuel, easy to ignite, smokeless, odorless and non-toxic." All produce an odor, and are not always easy to ignite. You may need to pour a little alcohol on your fuel tab to get it started.
Not all fuel tabs are created equal. Although the many different brands of Hexamine share the same main ingredient, they vary in quality and may use different binding agents. Non-Esbit Hexamine can be found in many stores such as Trailquest, LWgear and military surplus stores (in a white, olive or brown cardboard tube).
Author's take on the different Hexamethylenetetramine Solid Fuel products:
Esbit
HQ Company Hexamine
StanSport Stove Fuel Item #236
Coghlan's #9565 Fuel
TabletsOne tab weighs ~14gm (~0.5oz)
Four tabs weighs ~15gm
One tab weighs ~18gm (~0.6oz)
Two tabs weigh ~13gm (0.47oz)
One tab will get 16oz of water to a good boil with the 2oz Esbit system.
Four tabs will get 16oz of water to a slight boil.
Esbit burns just about completely, except for the sticky residue left behind on the stand and pot.
Tabs leave behind a black skeleton of incompletely burned material, and you may have to poke it with a stick to expose unburned fuel in order to get it to burn all usable fuel.
Cost about US6ドル for a box of 12 individually wrapped tabs.
Cost about US1ドル.30 for a blister pack of 8 (US7ドル.80 for 48 ~ 12 Esbit tabs).
Cost about US3ドル for a package of 8 tabs ( ~ 10 Esbit tabs).
Cost about US4ドル for a box of 24 individually wrapped tabs ( ~ 12 Esbit tabs).
US35ドル.71 per kg
US43ドル.33 per kg
US20ドル.83 per kg
US25ドル.64 per kg
Produces smoke.
Produces smoke.
Produces odor.
Produces odor.
Note: According to the Trailquest site, one 1/4oz Coghlan's fuel tab (comparable to half an Esbit in weight) can boil 16oz of water. If this is correct, under ideal conditions the amount of Coghlan's fuel tabs needed would weigh half as much and cost a third of that of Esbit. Sounds too good to be true but worth investigating.
Trioxane: aka - triox, GI fuel tabs, metaformaldehyde, trioxane,1,3,5-trioxacyclohexane, 1,3,5-trioxane, aldeform, formagene, marvosan, s-trioxane, s-trixane, sym-trioxane, triformol, trioxymethylene and C3H6O3.
NOTE: These fuel tabs contain metaformaldehyde which is toxic and releases formaldehyde gas (also toxic) when it decomposes. This fuel is toxic despite the many websites that claim theirs are "nontoxic". You shouldn't eat without first washing your hands after handling this fuel and the fumes aren't much fun either.
The US military uses trioxane fuel bars which are cheap (you can buy cases of 750 from many surplus dealers) and are said to have "an almost infinite shelf life." Because of this, they are great for survivalists who want to store large amounts of supplies that are easily procurable and economical (GI surplus is a also a plus with many of these folks). Trioxane has about half the potential heat value per ounce than hexamine but burns a light blue which is more tactically sound than the bright yellow of hexamine.
The most common and cheapest wax used in candles today. It is made from petroleum waste and produces smoke and soot. There is big talk these days about cancer caused by inhalation of paraffin candle smoke. Candles made form this wax are ideal for those who shop at the dollar store (or pound store) and don't worry themselves about cancer reports.
Made by bees and is the cleanest burning wax around. It burns much longer and produces more heat per gram than paraffin wax. Because of the lack of smoke and soot, these waxes are considered safe. It is also more expensive than paraffin per gram but their longer burn times may offset the price difference. Some hunters use honey burners or beeswax candles to attract hungry bears, which could be a plus if you are hunting but not such a desirable feature after a long day of hiking. This is probably the best choice of wax for hikers unless the chance of attracting bears and other critters is undesirable.
Beeswax composition:
70 % esters of long chain wax alcohols (C24-C44) with carbon acids (C16/C18)
13-18 % hydrocarbons (C25-C35)
10-15 % free wax acids (C24-C32)
1 % free wax alcohols (C34-C36)
Stearin
Stearin candles are made up of stearic acid that is often mixed with palmaitic acid. This wax is produced by the saponification (mixing with a strong alkali) of vegetable and/or animal fats. Stearic acid is also used to add firmness to paraffin wax and increases candle burn time.
This wax is made of white mineral oil, gelliants, and butylated hydroxy toluene. Because of their softness, these waxes must be used in containers with ridged wicks. Ideal for those who like colors, smells and don't have allergies.
Ideal for vegan extremists.
Soywax
Soywax is made from hydrogenated soybean oil. Not the best candle material around as it may only melt the core of the candle and can be brittle. It does burn cleaner than paraffin (but produces more soot than beeswax), is considered safe to use and doesn't shrink when it cools.Carnuba wax
A wax exuded by the leaves of the Brazilian Carnauba Palm nuts.
Ceresine
This is made from palm oil and coconut wastes modified with other vegetable waxes. It is a higher quality wax than paraffin.
BayberryMade from bayberries. A sweet-smelling wax that burns clean.
Tallow and other Animal Fat Waxes
Tallow is made from suet. Very smoky, sooty and produces an acrid odor when burned. Some of these candles were and can be made to be edible and were used on Captain Scott's final expedition to the South Pole in 1910-11. Ideal for those wanting to go medieval.
Stearic acid
This is produced by the saponification (mixing with a strong alkali) of vegetable or animal fats (also found in chocolate) and is used to add firmness to paraffin wax and increases their burn time.
Spermaceti
Made form the crystallizing oil found in the heads of sperm whales. A one pound candle made form this wax is the standard source of light for one "candle power." Spermaceti wax doesn't produce an acrid odor when burned, is harder than tallow or beeswax, doesn't soften or bend in the summer heat, and produces a pure bright light.
Seal Oil and other animal oils
Oil from blubber can be used with a wick and has been used for centuries in Alaska and Siberia.
Liquid Candle Fuels
Many brands are straight kerosene, while others are refined into heavier and cleaner hydrocarbons in liquid form (at room temperature).
Oils such as olive oil can be used for lamps, but tend to burn very sooty.
