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Commit 7c3c0cb

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Ehsan M. Kermani
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Content editorial
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‎book/src/01_calculator/ast.md‎

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## Abstract Syntax Tree (AST)
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AST comes into picture when we want to go from the string representation of our program like `"-1"` or `"1 + 2"` to something more manageable and easier to work with. Since our program is not a random string (the grammar is for), we can use the structure within the expressions like `"-1"` and `"1 + 2"` to our own advantage and come up with a *new representation* like a [tree](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_structure)
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AST comes into picture when we want to go from the string representation of our program like `"-1"` or `"1 + 2"` to something more manageable and easier to work with. Since our program is not a random string (the grammar is for), we can use the structure within the expressions `"-1"` and `"1 + 2"` to our own advantage and come up with a *new representation* like a [tree](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_structure)
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<p align="center">
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</br>
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## Interpreter
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CPU is the *ultimate interpreter*. That is, it executes opcodes as it goes. After we have changed the representation (aka *lowered* the representation) of our source code `&str` to AST `Node` the a basic interpreter looks and each node of the AST (via any [tree traversal methods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_traversal)) and simply **evaluates** it *recursively*
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CPU is the *ultimate interpreter*. That is, it executes opcodes as it goes. To do that, after we have changed the representation (aka *lowered* the representation) of our source code `&str` to AST `Node`, a basic interpreter looks and each node of the AST (via any [tree traversal methods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_traversal)) and simply **evaluates** it *recursively*
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```rust,ignore
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{{#include ../../../calculator/src/compiler/interpreter.rs:interpreter_eval}}
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```
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To sum up, we can define a `Compile` trait
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To sum up, we define a `Compile` trait
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```rust,ignore
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{{#include ../../../calculator/src/lib.rs:compile_trait}}

‎book/src/01_calculator/ast_traversal.md‎

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Recall from the previous section that JITing our [add function](./basic_llvm.md) was very detailed and cumbersome to write. Fortunately, there are some useful patterns for traversing complicated ASTs (and IRs)
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* **Builder pattern**
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* **Visitor pattern** (Will introduce it in chapter 4)
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* **Visitor pattern** (Will be introduced in chapter 4)
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### Builder Pattern
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{{#include ../../../calculator/src/compiler/jit.rs:jit_ast}}
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```
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<span class="filename">Filename: calculator/src/compiler/jit.rs</span>
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Finally, we can test it
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```rust,ignore
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assert_eq!(Jit::from_source("1 + 2").unwrap(), 3)
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```

‎book/src/01_calculator/basic_llvm.md‎

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### Setup
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The code is available in [`calculator/examples/llvm/src/main.rs`](../../../calculator/examples/llvm/src/main.rs). Because my `llvm-config --version` shows `10.0.0` so I'm using `branch = "llvm=10-0"` in inkwell
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The code is available in [`calculator/examples/llvm/src/main.rs`](https://github.com/ehsanmok/create-your-own-lang-with-rust/blob/master/calculator/examples/llvm/src/main.rs). Because my `llvm-config --version` shows `10.0.0` so I'm using `branch = "llvm=10-0"` in inkwell
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```text
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inkwell = { git = "https://github.com/TheDan64/inkwell", branch = "llvm10-0" }
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```
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Go to [`calculator/examples/llvm` crate](../../../calculator/examples/llvm/) and `cargo run`.
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Go to [`calculator/examples/llvm`](https://github.com/ehsanmok/create-your-own-lang-with-rust/blob/master/calculator/examples/llvm/) sub-crate and `cargo run`.
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### Add Function
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{{#include ../../../calculator/examples/llvm/src/main.rs:first}}
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```
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2. We define the signature of `add(i32, i32) -> i32`, add the function to our module, create a [basic block]((https://thedan64.github.io/inkwell/inkwell/basic_block/index.html)) entry point and a builder to add later parts
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2. We define the signature of `add(i32, i32) -> i32`, add the function to our module, create a [basic block](https://thedan64.github.io/inkwell/inkwell/basic_block/index.html) entry point and a builder to add later parts
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```rust,ignore
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‎book/src/01_calculator/calc_intro.md‎

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If you haven't cloned the [GitHub](https://github.com/ehsanmok/create-your-own-lang-with-rust) repo already, please do and navigate to the `calculator` subdirectory.
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To start, we have `1 + 1;` in [examples/simple.calc](../../../calculator/src/examples/simple.calc) where you can compile with
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To start, we have `1 + 1;` in [examples/simple.calc](https://github.com/ehsanmok/create-your-own-lang-with-rust/blob/master/calculator/examples/simple.calc) where you can compile with
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```text
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cargo build --bin main // create the CLI executable for Calc

‎book/src/01_calculator/grammar_lexer_parser.md‎

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```rust,ignore
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CalcParser::parse(Rule::Program, source)
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```
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Before doing that, we need to define our Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) in the [next section](./ast.md).

‎book/src/01_calculator/jit_intro.md‎

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## Just-In-Time (JIT) Compiler with LLVM
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JIT compilation is a combination of Ahead-Of-Time (AOT) compilation and interpretation. As we saw previously, our `Calc` interpreter evaluates AST to values (actual integer `i32` values) but a JIT compiler differs from an interpreter in what it outputs. Intuitively, JIT outputs are like AOT outputs but generated at runtime when traversing the AST (similar to interpreter).
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JIT compilation is a combination of Ahead-Of-Time (AOT) compilation and interpretation. As we saw previously, our `Calc` interpreter evaluates AST to values (actual integer `i32` values) but a JIT compiler differs from an interpreter in what it outputs. Intuitively, JIT outputs are like AOT outputs but generated at runtime when traversing the AST.
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### LLVM
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‎book/src/01_calculator/repl.md‎

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## Conclusion
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This concludes our [Calculator](./calc_intro.md) chapter. We took advantage of the simplicity of our `Calc` language to cover a lot of topics.
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This concludes our [Calculator](./calc_intro.md) chapter. We took advantage of the simplicity of our `Calc` language to touch on a lot of topics.
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Thanks for following along and reading up this far!
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‎book/src/01_calculator/vm.md‎

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```
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<span class="filename">Filename: calculator/src/compiler/vm/bytecode.rs</span>
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and as an example, here is `"1 + 2"` AST to Bytecode conversion pictorially
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and pictorially, here is how `"1 + 2"` AST to Bytecode conversion would look like
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{{#include ../../../calculator/src/compiler/vm/vm.rs:vm_interpreter}}
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```
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<span class="filename">Filename: calculator/src/compiler/vm/vm.rs</span>
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To examine the generated Bytecodes and run our VM, we can do
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let byte_code = Interpreter::from_source(source);
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println!("byte code: {:?}", byte_code);
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let mut vm = VM::new(byte_code);
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vm.run();
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println!("{}", vm.pop_last());
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```
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Checkout the [next section](./repl.md) on how to create a REPL for our `Calc` and see some samples of computations.

‎book/src/intro.md‎

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The accompanying codes and materials for this book are available in [GitHub](https://github.com/ehsanmok/create-your-own-lang-with-rust). To follow along, make sure you have
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* [Rust installed](https://www.rust-lang.org/tools/install)
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* [Rust toolchain installed](https://www.rust-lang.org/tools/install)
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* Cloned the repository
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```text

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