School of Diplomacy
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The School of Diplomacy (simplified Chinese: 纵 横 家 ; traditional Chinese: 縱橫家 ; pinyin: Zōng héng Jiā), or the School of Vertical and Horizontal Alliances refers to a set of military and diplomatic strategies during the Warring States period of Chinese history (476-220 BCE), aiming for power balance among the strongest Qin State and the other weaker states.[1] According to the Book of Han , the school was one of the Nine Schools of Thought (Chinese: 九流; pinyin: Jiǔ Liú). Originated by Guiguzi , the School of Diplomacy's main adherents were Gongsun Yan [zh], Su Qin, Zhang Yi, Gan Mao [zh], Sima Cuo [zh], Yue Yi, Fan Sui [zh], Cai Ze [zh], Zou Ji [zh], Mao Sui, Li Yiji and Kuai Che [zh] as detailed in the Annals of the Warring States .
Background
[edit ]By the time of the Warring States period, the major contest was between the powerful State of Qin situated in the west, and the other six mid-power, namely Yan, Zhao, Wei, Qi, Chu, and Han. The seven states engaged in a complex series of pacts and military alliances, commonly referred to as the Horizontal and Vertical Alliances, based on two geographic patterns. The Horizontal Alliance (连横,lianhen), adopted by Qin, followed a west-east alignment aimed at curbing the coalitions of the other six states. In contrast, the Vertical Alliance (合纵, hezong) formed a north-south alignment among the six states to block Qin’s further expansion.[2] [3]
According to the Han Feizi , a Pre-Qin text on Legalist Philosophy, The Vertical Alliance refers to multiple smaller states forming an alliance to collectively counter a superpower, whereas the Horizontal Alliance sees a superpower allying with one of its weaker adversaries to divide and weaken the opposition, enabling it to defeat them individually.[4] In practice, Qin successfully broke apart the anti-Qin Vertical Alliances, conquered the smaller states and eventually rise to domination.[5] The diplomatic schemes adopted by Qin include lies, bribery, and espionage.[6]
The school's adherents were always an active group on the political stage during the Warring States period. Moreover, they played a decisive role and were described as extremely powerful and capable, constantly struggling to manipulate the situation. They are all fickle and capricious, change sides frequently and are unable to decide who their master is. Both Su Qin of the Vertical Alliance clique and Zhang Yi of the Horizontal Alliance clique issue many plans and schemes that are politically subjective.
Historical accounts
[edit ]The few principal written records of the School of Diplomacy that exist today are the thirteenth chapter of the Book of Gui or Guiguzi , the thirty-third chapter of Annals of the Warring States , not about the School of Diplomacy's followers, but primarily the words and actions of its advisors as well as actual combat case studies.
The Annals of the Warring States is a well-written rhetorical compendium the words and actions of the strategists of the School of Diplomacy who were all resourceful, intelligent, aware of the actual situation and gifted in the use of language.
References
[edit ]Bibliography
[edit ]- Qi, Haixia (2023), Acharya, Amitav; Bell, Daniel A.; Bhargava, Rajeev; Xuetong, Yan (eds.), "Balancing in Ancient China", Bridging Two Worlds: Comparing Classical Political Thought and Statecraft in India and China, Comparing Classical Political Thought and Statecraft in India and China, vol. 4 (1 ed.), University of California Press, pp. 267–283, ISBN 978-0-520-39098-0 , retrieved 2025年03月21日
- Watson, Burton (1962). Early Chinese Literature. The Companions to Asian Studies. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-88114-2.
- Hui, Victoria Tin-Bor (2005). State formation in ancient China and early modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University press. ISBN 978-0-521-52576-3.
- Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L., eds. (1999). The Cambridge history of ancient China: from the origins of civilization to 221 B.C. Cambridge, UK ; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.